Glottopedia - User contributions [en]

User:THuck

2013-07-02T11:09:45Z

MRiessler: Created page with "Studentin"

Studentin

User:AOeztas

2013-07-02T11:03:24Z

MRiessler: Created page with "Studentin"

Studentin

Category:Russian

2013-07-02T10:38:05Z

MRiessler: new cat

This category lists articles on Russian.

Nominalphrase im Russischen

2013-07-02T10:37:06Z

MRiessler: new cat

Diese Seite ist eine kurze Darstellung der russischen Nominalphrase.

== Konstituentenfolge innerhalb der Nominalphrase (NP) ==
a. Adjektive, Demonstrative und Possessive (Pronomen!) stehen links vom Kopf:

[star-aja sobaka]

[alt-NOM hundNOMø]

[et-a sobaka]

[dieser-NOM hundNOMø]

[moj-a sobaka]

[mein-NOM hundNOMø]

b. Genitive und Relativsätze stehen rechts vom Kopf:

[sobaka Viktor-a]

[hundNOMø Viktor-GEN.M.SG]

[sobaka, kotor-uju ja vid-el]

[hundNOMø, der-AKK.F.SG ich sehen-PST.3SG.M]

c. Numerale können links oder rechts des Kopfes stehen, die Wortstellung ist bedeutungsunterscheidend:

[desjat’ rubl-ej]

[10 Rubel-NOM.PL]
‚zehn Rubel‘

[rublej desjat’]

[Rubel-NOM.PL 10]
‚etwa zehn Rubel‘

== Adjektive ==
Adjektive, die als Modifikatoren auftreten, kongruieren in Numerus, Genus und Kasus mit dem Kopf:

[bedn-yj mal‘čik]

[arm-NOM.M.SG jungeNOM.M.SGø]

[bedn-ogo mal‘čik-a]

[arm-GEN.M.SG junge-GEN.M.SG]

[bedn-ym mal‘čik-am]

[arm-DAT.M.PL junge-DAT.M.PL]

== Numerale ==

Die Numerale im Russischen können in Kardinale (Grundzahlwörter) und Ordinale (Ordnungszahlwörter) unterteilt werden. Daneben existiert für die Zahlen von zwei bis zehn die Kategorie Kollektiva, also Sammelzahlen, welche verwendet werden, um mehrere belebte Objekte als eine Gesamtheit zu beschreiben. Zu der letzteren Kategorie gehört auch das Wort "oba" ("beide").

=== Kardinale ===

a. Numeral "eins" wird wie ein Adjektiv flektiert (bei Pluraliatantum auch im Plural!):

[od-in mal’čik]

[ein-NOM.M.SG jungeNOM.M.SG]

[od-nogo mal’čik-a]

[ein-GEN.M.SG junge-GEN.M.SG]

[odn-im nožnic-am]

[ein-DAT.PL Schere-DAT.PL

b. Numerale "zwei" bis "vier" in NOM-AKK verlangen GEN.SG:

[dv-a mal‘čik-a]

[zwei-NOM.M junge-GEN.M.SG]

c. Numerale ab "fünf" in NOM-AKK verlangen GEN.PL:

[pjat‘ bedn-yx mal’čik-ov]

[fünfNOM arm-GEN.PL junge-GEN.M.PL]

=== Ordinale ===
Die Ordinale werden wie Adjektive flektiert und müssen wie diese in Genus, Numerus und Kasus mit dem Kopf der Phrase kongruieren.

[perv-oe mesto]

[erster NOM.SG. Platz NOM.SG.]

[v pjatych čislach]

[in fünfter PRÄP.PL. Zahl PRÄP.PL.] ('ungefähr zum fünften Tag [eines Monats]')

Bei Ordinalen, die sich auf Zahlen größer als 20 beziehen, wird nur die Einserkomponente flektiert:

[dvadcat' vtorogo ijunja]

[zwanzig zweite GEN.SG. Juni GEN.SG.] ('am zweiundzwanzigsten Juni')

=== Kollektiva ===

Der Kopf einer Nominalphrase mit einem Kollektivum als Modifikator muss die Form des Genitivs Plural annehmen, falls die Phrase als Subjekt fungiert. In allen anderen Fällen muss das Kollektivum mit dem Phrasenkopf nach Kasus konvergieren.

[dvoe druzej]

[zwei NOM. Freund GEN.PL.]

[četverym studentam]

[vier DAT. Student DAT.PL.]

Für das Wort 'oba' ('beide') gelten zunächst die gleichen Ausführungen wie für die restlichen Kollektiva. Zusätzlich muss es jedoch mit dem Phrasenkopf nach Genus konvergieren, wobei die Formen für Maskulinum und Neutrum übereinstimmen:

[oba učenika]

[beide NOM.M. Schüler GEN.PL.]

[obe učenicy]

[beide NOM.F. Schülerin GEN.PL.]

[oba polja]

[beide NOM.N. Feld GEN.PL.]

[oboim učenikam]

[beide DAT.M. Schüler DAT.PL.]

[obeim učenicam]

[beide DAT.F. Schülerin DAT.PL.]

[oboim poljam]

[beide DAT.N. Feld DAT.PL.]

==Siehe auch==
*[[Russian]]
*[[Nominalphrasen im Finnischen]]
*[[Nominalphrase im Schwedischen]]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:SURV]]
[[Category:Syntax]]
[[Category:Russian]]

Glottopedia:Forum/Categories

2013-06-11T06:27:40Z

MRiessler: discussing

<div {{Greenbox2}}>'''This page is intended for discussions regarding categories, categorizations, and category tools.''' </div>

As resulting out of attempts to sort articles into categories and several subsequent conversations with [[User:Wohlgemuth|Wohlgemuth]], here's a list of issues and suggestions concerning the [[Special:Categories|categories]]:

mergable categories:
* Phonetics_and_Phonology, Phonetics_and_phonolgy, Phonetics, and Phonology (cf. category list) all coexist and should possibly be merged into one category. As both areas are sometimes hard to distinguish, a superordinate category like 'Phonetics and Phonolgy' with two subordinate categories for either of them could considered.
* Valency and Valence should also be merged into one category as they name the same topic.

Moreover, a closer look into the category seems necessary. There are several categories that shouldn't be major categories but rather subordinate ones. Tasks like this could either be done by hand or via the usage of a bot. The possibility to create something like a category tree doesn't only make it easier to navigate the page but also allows the usage of - for example - plugins that automatically sort articles into their superordinate categories when they are put into a subordinate one.

A further suggestion that came up in yesterdays conversation is one regarding category languages: most of Glottopedia's users are students which most likely will search for articles and categories in their native language. Since there is quite a number of German categories (and some even have a [[Portal:Quantitative_Linguistik|portal]] already), the idea was to allow creating categories both in English and the respective article languages. This wouldn't go along with the original idea of having all category names in English, but might be worth thinking about as it would allow Glottopedia to be searchable way easier and would additionally enable the category tree to be more specific. It would also prevent categories from getting too large because they subsume articles about the same topics in several languages.

[[User:Katja Politt|Katja Politt]] ([[User talk:Katja Politt|talk]]) 12:17, 7 June 2013 (CEST)

Some additional points by me
:* Articles should only be added into their laguage's categories. On the category pages (and portals) themselves one should place links to the same categories in other languages.
:* We need some kind of plugin like ''categrory tree'' ( http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:CategoryTree ) to avoid cluttering articles with superordinate categories' labels. This would also be extremely useful for articles on languages / doculects.
:* The categories need proper definitions and guidelines.
:* The metalanguage categories like DE, EN, ZH should not be at root level. They ought to be subsumed under some more general Metacategory.
--[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] ([[User talk:Wohlgemuth|talk]]) 15:53, 7 June 2013 (CEST)

::Since English seems to be our working language (see also this discussion) and the general meta language in this project anyway, we do not need categories in different languages. We are multilingual and can easily work with articles in different languages categorized under one English label, like we also often do for glosses. I am pro the other suggestions. --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 08:27, 11 June 2013 (CEST)

Subordination im Skoltsaamischen

2013-03-23T11:05:59Z

MRiessler: more editing, links to En articles

Dieser Artikel gibt einen Einblick in [[Subordination]] im [[Skoltsaamisch]]en anhand von Komplement- und Relativsätzen.

=Komplementsätze=

===Finiter Komplementsatz===

Finite Komplementsätze werden mit dem [[Komplementierer]] (Englisch [[complementizer]]) ''što'' markiert, welcher aus dem [[Russisch]]en entlehnt wurde. Der nachgestellte Komplementsatz kann dabei auch als völlig unabhängiger Satz fungieren.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ceä′lǩǩe
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | što
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | kuuskõõzzid ij õõlǥ njorggad
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | say.PRS.3PL
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[COMP]]
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | aurora.PL.ILL NEG.3SG must.NEG whistle.INF
|-
|}
''they say that one mustn't whistle at the northern lights''<ref>Feist 2010: 332.</ref>

===Infiniter Komplementsatz===

Infinite Komplementsätze werden dagegen weder mit ''što'' markiert, noch können sie als unabhängige Sätze fungieren.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ton
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ääʹlj
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | čee ǩeʹtted
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | 2SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | begin.IMP.2SG
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | tea.SG.ACC boil.INF]
|-
|}
''you begin to make tea!''<ref>Feist 2010: 333.</ref>

Werden mehrere Komplemente in einen Matrixsatz eingebettet wird jeder Komplementsatz mit einem vorangehenden ''što'' markiert. Komplemente müssen dabei nicht zwangsläufig in einen Matrixsatz integriert werden, sondern können auch innerhalb eines Adverbialsatzes eingebettet werden. Ferner besteht die Möglichkeit anstatt ''što'' den finnischen Komplementierer ''että'' zu verwenden.<ref>Feist 2010: 334f.</ref>

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | Sverloov Jääkk jordd
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | että
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon ǩiõlddõõđam
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | Sverloff.GEN Jaakko.NOM think.PRS.3SG
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | COMP[FI]
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM joke.PRS.1SG
|-
|}
''Jaakko Sverloff thinks that I'm joking''<ref>Feist 2010: 335.</ref>

=Relativsätze=

Als [[Relativierer]] (Englisch: [[relativizer]]) wird im Skoltsaamischen das [[Relativpronomen]] ''kååʹtt'' verwendet, welches nach [[Kasus]] (Englisch [[case]]) und [[Numerus]] (Englisch [[number]]) flektiert wird und damit Eigenschaften der [[Nominalphrase]] des Relativsatzes markiert. Die Rolle der Relativphrase lässt sich dabei von der Flektion des Relativpronomens ableiten. Ist das Relativpronomen z.B. im Nominativ kommt der Relativphrase die Funktion des Subjekts zu. Die Fragepronomen ''mii'' 'was' and ''ǩii'' 'wer' können ebenso als Relativpronomen fungieren. Das Paradigma für ''kååʹtt'' sieht folgendermaßen aus:

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | Singular
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | Plural
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹtt
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kook
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koid
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | GEN
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooi
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ILL
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koozz
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooid
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | LOC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koʹst
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koin
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | COM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koin
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooivuiʹm
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ABE
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koontää
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooitää
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ESS
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹđen
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | PART
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹđed
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
|-
|}
Beispiel für ein relativiertes Subjekt

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon vääldam tuʹst tän pääʹrn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹtt
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | lij šõddâm
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM take.PRS.1SG 2SG.LOC PROX.SG.ACC boy.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | REL.SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | be.PRS.3SG be.born.PST.PTCP
|-
|}
''I'll take from you this boy, who has been born''<ref>Feist 2010: 349.</ref>

Beispiel für ein relativiertes Objekt

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | ooudam tuʹnne mååus tõn pääʹrn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon vueʹššen vaʹlddem
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | give.PRS.1SG 2SG.ILL back DIST.SG.ACC boy.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | REL.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM first take.PST.1SG
|-
|}
''I'll give back to you the boy, which I took first''<ref>Feist 2010: 350.</ref>

Das Wort ''mii'' 'was' kann, wie das folgende Beispiel zeigt, auch als Relativierer verwendet werden, wobei nicht eindeutig geklärt ist, ob [[Belebtheit]] (Englisch: [[animacy]]) eine Rolle für die Wahl des Pronomens spielt.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | son lij tuejjääm tõn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | mii
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | leäi suʹst ǩiõlddum
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 3SG.NOM be.PRS.3SG do.PST.PTCP DIST.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | what.SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | be.PST.3SG 3SG.LOC forbid.PASS.PTCP
|-
|}
''he did that, which he had been forbidden''<ref>Feist 2010: 352.</ref>

=Literatur=

* Tim Feist. 2010. [https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:123128&datastreamId=FULL-TEXT.PDF A Grammar of Skolt Saami.] Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester.

* Matti Miestamo. 2011. [http://www.sgr.fi/susa/93/miestamo.PDF Skolt Saami: a typological profile]. In: Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 93. 111–145.

* Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (Hrsg.) (2011), [http://wals.info/ The World Atlas of Language Structures] Online.

=Zitate=
<references/>

=Siehe auch=
*[[Skoltsaamisch]]

=Andere Sprachen=
* English [[Subordination in Skolt Saami]]
* Norsk (Nynorsk) [[Subordinasjon i skoltesamisk]]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:SURV]]
[[Category:Skolt Saami]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Subordination im Skoltsaamischen

2013-03-23T11:02:53Z

MRiessler: editing, mostly stylistic

Dieser Artikel gibt einen Einblick in [[Subordination]] im [[Skoltsaamisch]]en anhand von Komplement- und Relativsätzen.

=Komplementsätze=

===Finiter Komplementsatz===

Finite Komplementsätze werden mit dem [[Komplementierer]] (Englisch [[Complementizer]]) ''što'' markiert, welcher aus dem [[Russisch]]en entlehnt wurde. Der nachgestellte Komplementsatz kann dabei auch als völlig unabhängiger Satz fungieren.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ceä′lǩǩe
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | što
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | kuuskõõzzid ij õõlǥ njorggad
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | say.PRS.3PL
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[COMP]]
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | aurora.PL.ILL NEG.3SG must.NEG whistle.INF
|-
|}
''they say that one mustn't whistle at the northern lights''<ref>Feist 2010: 332.</ref>

===Infiniter Komplementsatz===

Infinite Komplementsätze werden dagegen weder mit ''što'' markiert, noch können sie als unabhängige Sätze fungieren.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ton
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ääʹlj
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | čee ǩeʹtted
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | 2SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | begin.IMP.2SG
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | tea.SG.ACC boil.INF]
|-
|}
''you begin to make tea!''<ref>Feist 2010: 333.</ref>

Werden mehrere Komplemente in einen Matrixsatz eingebettet wird jeder Komplementsatz mit einem vorangehenden ''što'' markiert. Komplemente müssen dabei nicht zwangsläufig in einen Matrixsatz integriert werden, sondern können auch innerhalb eines Adverbialsatzes eingebettet werden. Ferner besteht die Möglichkeit anstatt ''što'' den finnischen Komplementierer ''että'' zu verwenden.<ref>Feist 2010: 334f.</ref>

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | Sverloov Jääkk jordd
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | että
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon ǩiõlddõõđam
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | Sverloff.GEN Jaakko.NOM think.PRS.3SG
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | COMP[FI]
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM joke.PRS.1SG
|-
|}
''Jaakko Sverloff thinks that I'm joking''<ref>Feist 2010: 335.</ref>

=Relativsätze=

Als [[Relativierer]] (Englisch: [[Relativizer]]) wird im Skoltsaamischen das [[Relativpronomen]] ''kååʹtt'' verwendet, welches nach [[Kasus]] und [[Numerus]] flektiert wird und damit Eigenschaften der [[Nominalphrase]] des Relativsatzes markiert. Die Rolle der Relativphrase lässt sich dabei von der Flektion des Relativpronomens ableiten. Ist das Relativpronomen z.B. im Nominativ kommt der Relativphrase die Funktion des Subjekts zu. Die Fragepronomen ''mii'' 'was' and ''ǩii'' 'wer' können ebenso als Relativpronomen fungieren. Das Paradigma für ''kååʹtt'' sieht folgendermaßen aus:

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | Singular
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | Plural
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹtt
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kook
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koid
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | GEN
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooi
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ILL
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koozz
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooid
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | LOC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koʹst
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koin
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | COM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koin
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooivuiʹm
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ABE
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koontää
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kooitää
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ESS
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹđen
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | PART
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹđed
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" |
|-
|}
Beispiel für ein relativiertes Subjekt

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon vääldam tuʹst tän pääʹrn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | kååʹtt
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | lij šõddâm
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM take.PRS.1SG 2SG.LOC PROX.SG.ACC boy.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | REL.SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | be.PRS.3SG be.born.PST.PTCP
|-
|}
''I'll take from you this boy, who has been born''<ref>Feist 2010: 349.</ref>

Beispiel für ein relativiertes Objekt

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | ooudam tuʹnne mååus tõn pääʹrn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | koon
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | mon vueʹššen vaʹlddem
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | give.PRS.1SG 2SG.ILL back DIST.SG.ACC boy.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | REL.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 1SG.NOM first take.PST.1SG
|-
|}
''I'll give back to you the boy, which I took first''<ref>Feist 2010: 350.</ref>

Das Wort ''mii'' 'was' kann, wie das folgende Beispiel zeigt, auch als Relativierer verwendet werden, wobei nicht eindeutig geklärt ist, ob [[Belebtheit]] (Englisch: [[animacy]]) eine Rolle für die Wahl des Pronomens spielt.

{| class="prettytable" style="text-align:center"
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | son lij tuejjääm tõn
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | mii
! style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | leäi suʹst ǩiõlddum
|-
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | 3SG.NOM be.PRS.3SG do.PST.PTCP DIST.SG.ACC
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | what.SG.NOM
| style="width:1em; background-color:#FFDEAD; white-space: nowrap" | be.PST.3SG 3SG.LOC forbid.PASS.PTCP
|-
|}
''he did that, which he had been forbidden''<ref>Feist 2010: 352.</ref>

=Literatur=

* Tim Feist. 2010. [https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:123128&datastreamId=FULL-TEXT.PDF A Grammar of Skolt Saami.] Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester.

* Matti Miestamo. 2011. [http://www.sgr.fi/susa/93/miestamo.PDF Skolt Saami: a typological profile]. In: Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 93. 111–145.

* Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (Hrsg.) (2011), [http://wals.info/ The World Atlas of Language Structures] Online.

=Zitate=
<references/>

=Siehe auch=
*[[Skoltsaamisch]]

=Andere Sprachen=
* En: [[Subordination in Skolt Saami]]
* Nn: [[Subordinasjon i skoltesamisk]]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:SURV]]
[[Category:Skolt Saami]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

User talk:Haspelmath

2013-02-06T11:57:49Z

MRiessler: /* InfoboxLanguageNew */ new section

== Template:Hello ==

Ich habe von der Linguipedia das [[Template:Hello|Begrüßungstemplate]] übernommen und an Glottopedia angepasst.

Von nun an können wir die Nutzer mit <nowiki>{{subst:Hello}}</nowiki> begrüßen.

--[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 18:03, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

== Enbiog ==

Ja, das template enbiog wäre mit Variable nützlicher, aber ich weiß, dass es nicht so einfach geht. Ich habe in Balthasar's Bibliographiedatenbank 6000 Autorennamen der Form "Alexandra Aikhenvald" auf "Aikhenvald, Alexandra" umgestellt. Automatisch geht es nur gut bei nichtadligen Autoren mit nur einem Vornamen. Die vorlage müsste erkennen, dass sie bei "Ferdinand de Saussure" auch das de hinterstellen soll, oder bei "R. M. W. Dixon" das "R. M. W." und dazu kommen noch Autoren mit zwei Nachnamen, mit oder ohne Bindestrich. Bei chinesischen Autoren ist es aber andersrum... Diese müsste man so oder so manuell machen. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 10:07, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== Geschlecht der lebenden Linguisten ==

Zu den lebenden Linguisten, bei denen wir nur auf ihre homepage verweisen, würde ich das Geschlecht angeben. Ich erinnere mich gut, dass wenn ich Linguisten in Hausarbeiten zitiert habe, musste ich den text manchmal ohne anaphorische Pronomen schreiben, weil ich nicht wusste ob es ein "he" oder "she" ist. Bei manchen Vornamen ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unisex_name unisex names]) kann man sich nicht sicher sein. Ich wusste einfach nicht, ob Francis Katamba Mann oder Frau ist. Wenn man keine Homepage mit foto findet ist man de ziemlich aufgeschmissen. Und mit fremdländischen namen kennt man sich nun schon gar nicht mehr aus, auch wenn er für kundige eindeutig geschlechtsspezifisch ist. (japanische, chinesische Namen). Und schon damals habe ich an so ein Geschlechtsregister der Linguisten gedacht, wo man nachschauen könnte (-: --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 10:19, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== OT ==

Hallo.

ich hab in der deutschsprachigen WP den Artikel [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimalitätstheorie] geschrieben (zumindest maßgeblich erweitert). Was meinst Du, wär er es wert, hierher "rüberkopiert" zu werden? Grüße--[[User:Patrick|Patrick]] 09:09, 7 August 2007 (CEST).

==Hi==

Thanks for the welcome, I'll do that :) Btw, is there any reason why the licence is CC-BY-SA and not GFDL or CC-BY-SA +GFDL? Is it to be deliberately incompatible with Wikipedia? - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:14, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

== Template:Andere ==

Hallo, wäre es nicht hilfreich, wenn [[Template:Andere]] einen Parameter für ein Link zum Artikel in der anderen Sprache, damit der potenzielle Übersetzer ihn leichter finden könnte? —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 13:57, 21 October 2007 (CEST)
:"Danke im Voraus"? Heißt das, du erwartest, dass ''ich'' das mache, oder was? ;-) Eigentlich ist es doch nicht nötig, wenn man gleich unter dem <nowiki>{{Andere}}</nowiki> einen "Andere Sprachen"-Abschnitt machst und das Link dort hinschreibt, wie z.B. bei [[Akronym]]. —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 21:19, 21 October 2007 (CEST)

== Benutzer löschen ==

Hallo Martin,

Könntest Du bitte meinen Benutzeraccount löschen? ich würde mich dannnochmal mit meinem (vollständigen) Realnamen neu registrieren. Danke--[[User:Patrick|Patrick]] 10:34, 6 November 2007 (CET).

: Bürokraten können den Usernamen auch umbenennen und Benutzer- und DIskussionsseiten dann automatisch verschieben, wenn das entsprechende Modul ''Renameuser'' installiert ist. Gerade bei der Anforderung hier, dass der Username dem Real-/Klarnamen entsprechen soll, wäre dieses Modul sinnvoll, zumal es die Datenbank entlastet. Accounts löschen kann man in der MediaWiki Software eh nicht. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|Wohlgemuth]] 14:32, 26 June 2008 (CEST)

==Frage==
Sehr geehrter Herr Haspelmath! Eine Frage zu Ihren Bearbeitungen: Sie haben bei "Morph (de)" den Eintrag "[[category:Morphologie]]" gelöscht. Ich dachte, man wolle in den einzelnen Kategorien zumindest die gleichsprachigen Artikel versammeln. Unter "Morphologie" findet man den entsprechenden Artikel zum "Morph" jetzt nicht mehr. Hab ich das etwas falsch verstanden? "Beste" Grüße
[[User:Kbest|Kbest]] 10:52, 1 July 2008 (CEST)

Hallo, Herr Haspelmath! Ich bin u.a. dadurch auf die deutsche Kategorisierung gekommen, weil ich bei etlichen Stichwörtern sowohl eine deutsche als auch eine englische Kategorisierung vorfand. Das hat wohl damit zu tun, dass hier ja 2 Projekte (Leipzig + Trier) zusammengeflossen sind. Gegen ein einheitliches Stichwortverzeichnis ist m.E. nichts einzuwenden. Schöne Grüße [[User:Kbest|Kbest]] 15:44, 2 July 2008 (CEST)

== Language Table ==

Martin, besteht Interesse daran, [[User:Wohlgemuth/Langtable|diese Tabelle]] offiziell einzubauen? --[[User:Wohlgemuth|Wohlgemuth]] 14:45, 15 July 2008 (CEST)

== Siggen ==

-> [[Glottopedia:Siggen]] Dort steht grob das, was von der tagung für die GP relevant war. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|Wohlgemuth]] 13:13, 13 October 2008 (CEST)

== Diverses ==

Hallo, 
ich habe mal angefangen, ein paar Wartungskategorien anzulegen und Daten aus Utrecht zu importieren: [http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Special:Contributions/Wohlgemuth]; insbesondere die Templates der Wartungskategorien [[:Category:Work needed]] müssten noch internationalisiert werden; da würde ich es bevorzugen, wenn Du noch einmal über mein adhoc-Englisch drüber schaust. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 21:58, 12 February 2009 (CET)

== Semantik Portal ==

Hallo Martin, 
ich habe ein bisschen am Semantik-Portal gebastelt. Für Feedback wäre ich dankbar. Ich frage mich, ob man das Portal nicht in 'Semantics and Pragmatics' umbenennen könnte. Ein eigenes Portal für 'Pragmatics' wäre wohl zu spezifisch, oder? --[[User:Volker gast|Volker gast]] 00:41, 15 March 2009 (CET)

== infobox journal ==

Martin, hattest Du die Infobox irgendwo gesehen? Wenn ja, wo? Dann kann ich mal gucken, ob wir die als funktionierende Vorlage eingebaut bekommen. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 19:03, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

== "Bürokratie" ==

Sorry, ich hatte mich am Freitag geirrt. Du bist ''kein'' "bureaucrat", kannst also aus dem Account "Haspelmath" heraus keine Administratoren ernennen, das kann nur der "Administrator" (von dem ich dachte, dass er zusätzlich "developer" wäre). Also: Kein Wunder, dass Du die Funktion nicht kanntest. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 19:07, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

== cyberling ==

Hast Du davon schon was gehört/gelesen? -> http://cyberling.elanguage.net/ --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 07:18, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

== InfoboxLanguageNew ==

Hallo Martin, ich habe angefangen die [[:Template:InfoboxLanguage]] zu überarbeiten und wollte Dich nach Deiner Motivation für eine neue [[:Template:InfoboxLanguageNew]] fragen. Bisher war die noch gar nicht verlinkt, vielleicht brauchen wir die dann gar nicht mehr? Wir sollten jedenfalls unsere Ideen dazu kombinieren. Ich persönlich würde "Alternative names" und "Region" lieber nur im Volltext des eigentlichen Artikels sehen. Bei "Dialekten" bin ich noch unsicher. Siehe auch [[:Template_talk:InfoboxLanguage]] --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 12:57, 6 February 2013 (CET)

Farbterminologie im Skoltsaamischen

2013-02-06T11:42:01Z

MRiessler: MRiessler moved page Farbterminologie der ostsaamischen Sprachen to Farbterminologie im Skoltsaamischen: upon consultation with the author

Diese Seite gibt eine Übersicht über die vorhandenen Farbbegriffe im [[Skoltsaamisch|Skoltsaamischen]].

==Farbbegriff Theorie==
'''

Dieser Artikel basiert auf Berlin und Kay’s Studie von 1969 über „Basic Color Terms“ (Farbgrundbegriife).
Die Studie zeigte, „dass die verschiedenen Sprachen zwar eine unterschiedliche Zahl von Farbkategorien in
ihrem Wortschatz haben, dass aber ein universeller Bestand von exakt elf Grundfarb-Kategorien existiert,
aus dem die elf oder weniger Bezeichnungen jeder Sprache ausgewählt werden.“ (Berlin/Kay, 1969: 2)

Um als „Basic Color Term“ zu gelten muss ein Lexem folgenden Richtlinien folgen:

Es darf nicht

1. Hyponyme eines Farbwortes (türkis)

2. polymorphemisch (dunkelblau)

3. fachsprachlich (cyan)

4. beschränkt auf bestimmte Kollokationen(blond als Haarfarbe)

sein.

Im Weiteren besteht eine Hierarchie zwischen den Farbbegriffen:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Stufe I|| Dunkel-Kalt und hell-warm
|-
| Stufe II || Rot
|-
| Stufe III|| Entweder grün oder gelb
|-
| Stufe IV ||Sowohl grün als auch gelb
|-
| Stufe V ||Blau
|-
| Stufe VI ||Braun
|-
| Stufe VII|| Lila, pink, orange oder grau
|}

Sprachen mit nur zwei Farbgrundbegriffen unterscheiden immer zwischen schwarz und weiß / hell und dunkel.
Bei Sprachen mit drei Farben folgt als nächstes rot, danach kommen gelb oder grün, gefolgt von blau und braun.
In der letzten Phase erhält die Sprache Grundwörter für lila, rosa, orange und grau.

== Farbbegriffe==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Farbe !! Skolt-Saamisch !! Inari-Saamisch !! Kildin-Saamisch !! Ter-Saamisch !! Akkala-Saamisch
|-
| weiß || viõlggâd || viel'gâd || vīlke || vilgis‘/ vil̄gɐd || vilkɵd
|-
| schwarz || cǎppâd ||čappâd || čoahpe || čahpɨs‘ || čäppad
|-
| rot || ruõpssâd || ruop'sâd || rūppse || roškes‘/ ri̮p̄s|| ropse
|-
| blau || ââ’leǩ/ seenai || čuov'jâd || al’ex || čuoves/ čij̄vɐd || öleg
|-
| gelb || viskkâd || viskǎd || ruččkes‘/ viskes || ruč‘kes‘ || visked
|-
| grün || ruõnâs/ ruânn || ruonâs || ruenn ||ri̮ə̑nas/ri̮enn || ranes
|-
| braun || ručkkâd || ruškâd ||ròškes || roškad ||
|-
| pink || ǩiõlggâd ruõpssâd || || || ||
|-
| orange || ma´linovi ruõpssâd || || || ||
|-
| lila || || || || ||
|-
| grau || rää‘nes || räänis ||ranes || ||
|-
| blau-grün || golubai || || || ||
|}

Die Farbbegriffe für schwarz und weiß sind in allen ostsaamischen Sprachen miteinander verwandt.
Für die Farbe gelb lassen sich die Begriffe in zwei Gruppen ordnen.
Skolt-, Inari- und Akkalasaamisch benutzen ''viskkâd/viskǎd/visked '', während im Tersaamischen ''ruč‘kes‘'' benutzt wird. Im Kildinsaamischen gibt es beide Begriffe, ''ruččkes‘/ viskes''.

Die Begriffe für blau sind im Skolt-, Kildin- und Akkalasaamischen verwandt. Im Inari- und Tersaamischen ist der Begriff für blau
''čuov'jâd'' bzw. ''čuoves/ čij̄vɐd''.

Nicht alle Farbbegriffe im Skoltsaamischen sind Grundfarbbegriffe nach der Definition von Berlin und Kay.
Sowohl pink als auch orange bestehen aus zusammengesetzten Farbbegriffen.
Pink, ''ǩiõlggâd ruõpssâd'' ist wörtlich helles rot.
Orange, ''ma´linovi ruõpssâd'', besteht aus dem russischen Wort für karmesinrot/himbeerrot, sowie rot.

== Typologie ==
Im World Atlas of Language Structures ([http://wals.info/ WALS]) [http://wals.info/chapter/132 Kapitel 132-135] sind die skoltsaamischen Farbbegriffe nicht vertreten.

== Lehnwörter ==
=== Germanische Lehnwörter ===

Die Begriffe für rot und grün sind in allen ostsaamischen Sprachen Lehnwörter der Germanischen Sprachfamilie.
Rot ist ein Lehnwort aus dem Proto Germanischen, ''*raudaz''. Der Begriff für grün ist ein Proto Nord Germanisches
Lehnwort, ''grœnn''.
Rot kam daher früher in den Sprachgebrauch der ostsaamischen Sprachen und folgt Berlin und Kays Farbterminologie-Hierarchie.

=== Russische Lehnwörter ===
''Seenai'', einer der beiden Begriffe für blau im Skoltsaamischen, ist aus dem russischen entlehnt ''sinij (синий)'', dunkelblau.
Außerdem gibt es im skoltsaamischen einen Farbbegriff für blau-grün, ''golubai''. Dieses Wort ist auch ein
russisches Lehnwort. Allerdings bedeutet ''goluboj (голубой)'' im Russischen himmelblau.

==Quellenangaben==
Brent Berlin / Paul Kay. (1969): Basic Color Terms: their Universality and Evolution, Berkeley.

Matti Miestamo. (2011): [http://www.sgr.fi/susa/93/miestamo.pdf Skolt Saami: a typological profile.] In: Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 93. 111–145.

Michael Rießler. (2009): [http://corpus1.mpi.nl/ds/imdi_browser/?openpath=MPI1564790%23 Loanwords in Kildin Saami, a Uralic language of northern Europe.] Loanwords in the world's languages, hrsg. von Martin Haspelmath und Uri Tadmor. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton. 384–413.

Pekka Sammallahti. (1998): The Saami languages. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.

Pekka Sammallahti und Jouni Moshnikoff. (1991): Suomi-koltansaame sanakirja. Utsjoki: Girjegiisá.

==Weblinks==
Saamisch Online Wörterbuch [http://victorio.uit.no/webdict/index.html victorio.uit.no/webdict/index.html]

Etymologisches saamisch Wörterbuch [http://kaino.kotus.fi/algu/index.php?t=etusivu kaino.kotus.fi/algu/index.php]

Farbterminologie der ostsaamischen Sprachen

2013-02-06T11:42:01Z

MRiessler: MRiessler moved page Farbterminologie der ostsaamischen Sprachen to Farbterminologie im Skoltsaamischen: upon consultation with the author

#REDIRECT [[Farbterminologie im Skoltsaamischen]]

Tsez

2013-02-04T19:44:04Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Tsez
|Autonym =Цез мец / Cez mec
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Dido
|OLACname =Dido
|WALSname =Tsez
|WALSLoc =
|Family =[[Nakh-Dagestanian]]
|Genus =[[Tsezic]]
|Countries =Russian Federation
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =7,000
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =ddo
|WALScode =ddo
|MPIExt1 =
}}

'''Tsez''' (also known as '''Dido'''; "цез" (cez) in [[Avar language|Avar]] and Tsez; დიდო (dido) in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]) is a [[Northeast_Caucasian_languages|Northeast Caucasian]] language with about 7000 speakers spoken by the Tsez, a muslimic people in the mountainous Tsunta district of southern and western [[Dagestan]], [[Russia]].

The name derives from the Tsez word for ''[[eagle]]''.

Tsez is an oral language. Avar and [[Russian language|Russian]] are used as literary languages locally, even in schools. However, attempts have been made to develop a stable orthography for the Tsez language as well as its relatives, mainly for the purpose of recording traditional folklore; thus, a [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] script based on that of Avar is used. Knowledge of Avar is usually better among men than among women, and the younger people tend to be more fluent in Russian than in Tsez, which is probably due to the lack of education in and about the language. The lexicon shows many traces of influences from Avar, Georgian, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and Russian, mainly through loanwords and — in the case of Russian — even syntactically and stylistically.

Tsez grammar was first analyzed by the Georgian linguist [[Davit Imnaishvili]] in [[1963]].

==Dialects==
Tsez can be divided into the following dialects, given with their Tsez names in parentheses:
* Asakh ''(Asaq)''
**Tsebari ''(Ceboru)''
* Mokok ''(Newo)''
* Kidero ''(Kidiro)''
* Sagada ''(Soƛʼo)''

The Asakh dialect is considered 'standard' by many and its subdialect Tsebari is the one used on this side.

[[Bezhta language|Bezhta]], [[Hinukh language|Hinukh]], [[Hunzib language|Hunzib]] and [[Khvarshi language|Khvarshi]] also used to be regarded as dialects of the Tsez language but are now commonly regarded as distinct languages of the same family.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
! 
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
![[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align="center"
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|{{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}} {{IPA|pʼ}} p b pʼ п б пӀ
|{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}} {{IPA|tʼ}} t d tʼ т д тӀ
|
|
|{{IPA|k}} {{IPA|g}} {{IPA|kʼ}} k g kʼ к г кӀ
|{{IPA|qʼ}} qʼ къ
|
|
|- align="center"
![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
|{{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}} s z с з
|{{IPA|s}} ł лъ
|{{IPA|ʃ}} {{IPA|ʒ}} š ž ш ж
|
|{{IPA|x}} {{IPA|ɣ}} x ɣ х гъ
|{{IPA|ħ}} {{IPA|ʕ}} ħ ʕ хӀ гӀ
|{{IPA|h}} h гь
|- align="center"
![[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| 
|{{IPA|ʦ}} {{IPA|ʦʼ}} c cʼ ц цӀ
|{{IPA|tɬ͡}} {{IPA|tɬ͡ʼ}} ƛ ƛʼ лӀ кь
|{{IPA|ʧ}} {{IPA|ʧʼ}} č čʼ ч чӀ
|
|{{IPA|qχ͡}} q хъ
|
|
|- align="center"
![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}} m м
|{{IPA|n}} n н
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|- align="center"
![[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|{{IPA|r}} r р
|{{IPA|l}} l л
|
|
|
|
|
|- align="center"
![[Semivowel]]
|{{IPA|w}} w в
|
|
|{{IPA|j}} y й
|
|
|
|
|}

* Tsez shows an inventory of 33 [[consonants]] plus 3 [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] uvular consonants.
* The [[glottal stop]] (ʔ) is not phonemic but occurs automatically before non-pharyngealized vowels in word-initial position.
* Consonant clusters are often broken up by inserting the [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel ''e''. After ''y'', the inserted vowel is ''i''.
* Word-initial consonants can be pharyngealized and are marked as such in the proposed orthography by a small {{IPA|ˁ}} following the consonant; in the Cyrillic spelling a [[palochka]] is used after the vowel that follows the consonant.
** A syllable-final pharyngealization of the consonant is transcribed in Cyrillic with '''Cʼ''' (where C stands for a consonant) and with '''VCˁ''' in the Latin transcription (the V stands for a vowel). Some dictionaries write this as '''VӀC''' though, which makes the sequence '''CVӀC''' ambiguous (see below).
** A syllable-initial pharyngealization of the consonant is transcribed in Cyrillic with '''CVӀ''' (the [[palochka]] follows the vowel, since the pharyngealization actually affects it more than the preceding consonant) and with '''CˁV''' in the Latin transcription.
** The pharyngealization itself is reported to be [[Epiglotto-pharyngeal_consonant|epiglottal]], as opposed to other languages.
* [[labialization|Labialized]] consonants are written as '''Cв''' in the Cyrillic and as '''Cʷ''' in the Latin transcription, respectively. Any consonant besides ''p'', ''pʼ'', ''b'', ''m'', ''w'', ''n'', ''l'', ''y'' and ''ʕ'' can be labialized.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|- align="center" cellpadding="4"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align="center"
! '''[[High vowel|High]]'''
| {{IPA|ɪ}} i и
| 
| {{IPA|ʊ}} u у
|- align="center"
! '''[[Mid vowel|Mid]]'''
| {{IPA|ɛ}} e е/э
| 
| {{IPA|ɔ}} o о
|- align="center"
! '''[[Low vowel|Low]]'''
| 
| {{IPA|a}} ({{IPA|aː}}) a (ā) а (ā) 
| 
|}

* The vowel ''ā'' only occurs in the Tsebari dialect.
* A vowel is dropped before another vowel, so there are never two consecutive vowels. However, a final ''-u'' [[labialization|labializes]] the preceding consonant, if followed by a vowel.
* In other dialects, the long central vowel is written as ''ӓ'' (in Cyrillic) and ''ä'' (in Latin).
* Word-initial ''e'' is spelled ''э'' in Cyrillic.
* In the proposed Cyrillic orthography, ''ya'', ''yo'', ''yu'' can also be written as ''я'', ''ё'', ''ю''.
* In the Asakh dialect, lengthened vowels are automatically neutralized to ''ā''. Other dialects (e.g. Mokok) also have a [[low front vowel]], usually transcribed as ''ä'', some also have a long [[mid back rounded vowel]], transcribed as ''ō''.

===Phonotactics===
The syllable structure is generally '''CV(C)'''. There are no vowel clusters. It is an [[agglutinative language]] with a complex morphology. Suffixes are either '''C''', '''V''', '''CV''', '''VC''' or '''C+CV''' (where the first consonant belongs to the preceding syllable), depending on the structure of the stem. An example is the [[superessive case|superessive]] suffix ''-ƛʼ(o)'', which attached to the word ''besuro'' (fish) forms ''besuro-ƛʼ'' (on the fish) and together with ''is'' (bull) forms ''is-ƛʼo'' in order to maintain the syllable restriction.

==Morphology==

===Nouns===
[[Noun]]s are inflected for [[grammatical number|number]] and [[grammatical case|case]], and have [[grammatical gender|noun classes]] assigned to them.

====Number====
Nouns can either be singular or plural. The plural is formed by adding ''-bi'' to the stem in the [[absolutive case]]: ''besuro'' (fish [sg.]) → ''besuro-bi'' (fish [pl.]). For all other cases, the suffix is ''-za''; thus, "of the fish [pl.]" becomes ''besuro-za-s''.

====Case====
There are 8 syntactical and a much larger number of locative cases, which distinguish 3 categories: location, orientation and direction. Thus, counting the locative and non-locative cases together, they sum up to 64. However, this is only an approximation, as the exact number of cases in the Tsez language is not fixed.

Tsez is an [[ergative-absolutive language]] which means that it makes no distinction between the subject of an intransitive sentence and the object of a transitive one — both are marked with the ergative suffix ''-ā''. The absolutive case remains unmarked.

According to [[Ramazan Rajabov]], the oblique stem of only 42% of the nouns is different from the absolutive stem. Some nouns change their internal structure (e.g., a vowel), while others add one of about 20 so-called "thematic suffixes" to their end, to which the other case suffixes are attached. The word for "language" or "tongue", for instance, is ''mec'' but its oblique stem is ''mecr-'', hence the plural is ''mecrebi'', the ergative ''mecrā'' and so on. Rajabov says that the choice of the correct thematic suffix is sometimes difficult even for native speakers. It is likely that their origin lies in an application of two different plural forms, in a similar way as in English the word "children" actually has two archaic plural endings: ''-(e)r'' and ''-en''. In Tsez it is sometimes even possible to use both the archaic and the regular and more productive ''-bi'' plural for a word.<ref>[http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf Tsez morphonology] by Ramazan Rajabov, retrieved June 22, 2006</ref>

=====Syntactic case suffixes=====
{| class="wikitable"
! 
! singular
! plural
|-
! '''[[absolutive case|Absolutive]]'''
| -∅
| -bi
|-
! '''[[ergative case|Ergative]]'''
| -ā
| -z-ā
|-
! '''[[genitive case|Genitive 1]]'''
| -(e)s
| -za-s
|-
! '''[[genitive case|Genitive 2]]'''
| -(e)z
| -za-z
|-
! '''[[dative case|Dative]]'''
| -(e)r
| -za-r
|-
! '''[[instrumental case|Instrumental]]'''
| -(e)d
| -za-d
|-
! '''[[equative case|Equative 1]]'''
| -ce
| -za-ce
|-
! '''[[equative case|Equative 2]]'''
| -qʼāy
| -za-qʼāy
|}

Of the two genitive cases, the first is used as attribute to an absolutive head noun and the second to an oblique one. That means, that the Genitive 1 is used for phrases like ''žekʼu-s is'' (the man's bull), and the Genitive 2 is used for ''žekʼu-z is-er'' (for the man's bull).

The Equative 1 is used to make comparisons, like ''besuro-ce'' (like a fish) and can also be attached to other cases.

Rajabov suggests 3 more syntactical cases, namely [[Possessive case|possessive]] 1 (''-łay''), possessive 2 (''-xu'') and [[Abessive case|abessive]] (''-tay''). However, their status is debatable, as they seem to show both inflectional as well as derivational tendencies.<ref>[http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf Tsez morphonology] by Ramazan Rajabov, retrieved June 22, 2006</ref>

=====Locative case suffixes=====
{| class="wikitable"
!  
! [[essive case|Essive]]
! [[lative case|Lative]]
! [[ablative case|Ablative]]
! [[allative case|Allative]]
! meaning
|-
! In—
| -ā -āz
| -ā-r -āz-a-r
| -āy -āz-ay
| -āɣor -āz-a
| = ''in (a hollow object)''
|-
! Cont—
| -ł -ł-āz
| -ł-er -ł-āz-a-r
| -ł-āy -ł-āz-ay
| -ł-xor -ł-āz-a
| = ''in (a mass), among''
|-
! Super—
| -ƛʼ(o) -ƛʼ-āz
| -ƛʼo-r -ƛʼ-āz-a-r
| -ƛʼ-āy -ƛʼ-āz-ay
| -ƛʼ-āɣor, -ƛʼ-ār -ƛʼ-āz-a
| = ''on (horizontal)''
|-
! Sub—
| -ƛ -ƛ-āz
| -ƛ-er -ƛ-āz-a-r
| -ƛ-āy -ƛ-āz-ay
| -ƛ-xor -ƛ-āz-a
| = ''under''
|-
! Ad—
| -x(o) -x-āz
| -xo-r -x-āz-a-r
| -x-āy -x-āz-ay
| -x-āɣor, -x-ā-r -x-āz-a
| = ''at''
|-
! Apud—
| -de -d-āz
| -de-r -d-āz-a-r
| -d-āy -d-āz-ay
| -d-āɣor, -d-ā-r -d-āz-a
| = ''near''
|-
! Poss—
| -q(o) -q-āz
| -qo-r -q-āz-a-r
| -q-āy -q-āz-ay
| -q-āɣor, -q-ā-r -q-āz-a
| = ''on (vertical)''
|-
! meaning
| = ''at (position)''
| = ''to (destination)''
| = ''from (origin)''
| = ''towards (direction)''
| 
|}

Of the forms, the upper one shows the '''non-distal''' (i.e., close), the lower one the '''distal''' (i.e., far) form of the suffix. In the non-distal there are sometimes two equal forms for the allative case. The epenthetic vowel ''o'' in parentheses is used after noun stems ending in a consonant; thus, "next to the bull" is ''is-xo'', while "next to the fish" is ''besuro-x''.

====Noun classes====
Tsez distinguishes 4 [[noun class]]es in the singular and 2 in the plural. They are prefixes that are attached to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, several postpositions like ''-oƛƛʼo'' ("between") or ''-iłe'' ("like") and the emphatic particle ''-uy'' to show agreement with the noun. Agreement is only possible on vowel-initial words, but there are also a few words beginning with a vowel that do not take these prefixes.

{| class="wikitable"
! Class
! Singular
! Plural
! Attribution
|-
! I
| ∅-
| b-
| ''for male persons only''
|-
! II
| y-
| rowspan=3 | r-
| ''for female persons and inanimate objects (e.g. "book")''
|-
! III
| b-
| ''for animals and inanimate objects (e.g. "sun")''
|-
! IV
| r-
| ''for inanimate objects only (e.g. "water")''
|}

As inanimate objects cover the classes II, III and IV, it's not overt into which class an inanimate object belongs. However, there are certain tendencies based on the semantic field of the nouns. Nouns that are able to move (like sun, moon, star, lightning, car, train) usually belong to class III, while products that traditionally have to do with the work of women (like clothes or berries and also milk) often belong to class II. Clothes made from leather are — as the word for leather itself — usually assigned to class III, due to their relation to animals. Class IV originally included abstract words, collective and mass nouns, such as water, salt, sky or wind. Materials also often seem to trigger noun classes: "chair" and "wood" are both class IV nouns. Also shape seems to have an influence (flat things are associated with class II, round things with class III and long things with class IV). In the same manner, proper names are assigned the classes of the nouns they denote. Thus, ''Patʼi'' ("Fatima") is assigned class II, because it's a female name, and ''Asaq'' (a Tsez village) belongs to class III, because "village" (''ˁaƛʼ'') is also in this group. Likewise, new loan words are assigned the noun class of a semantically similar existing Tsez word. It may be worth noting that experiments have shown that Tsez speakers do not assign any noun classes to new words for objects they do not know or where they do not know what they look like.<ref>[http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl27.pdf The class category in Tsez: underlying principles] by Ramazan Rajabov, retrieved June 23, 2006</ref>

Certain derivational endings also require a specific noun class, see the section about derivation below.

Verbs and adverbs always agree with the absolutive argument of the phrase, regardless of the clause's transitivity. 
If more than one absolutive argument is linked by the conjunction ''-n(o)'' ("and") and one of them is of the first noun class, then class I plural triggers the agreement for the clause; otherwise, it is class II/III/IV plural. Compare:

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''kid-no''||''uži-n''||'''''b'''-ay-si''
|-
|girl[II]:ABS-and||boy[I]:ABS-and||'''IPL'''-come-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"A girl and a boy arrived."
|}
and
:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''kid-no''||''meši-n''||'''''r'''-ay-si''
|-
|girl[II]:ABS-and||calf[III]:ABS-and||'''IIPL'''-come-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"A girl and a calf arrived."
|}

===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
[[Personal pronouns]] exist in Tsez only for the first and second person; for the third person the demonstratives ''že'' (singular) and ''žedi'' (plural) are used. As the singular personal pronouns have the same form in absolutive and ergative, a sentence like ''Di mi okʼsi'' is ambiguous, because it can both mean "I hit you" and "You hit me", due to the rather free word order. However, they have a different form for the oblique cases and an irregular form in the genitive 1 case, same as the plural pronouns. The singular pronouns also have the same forms for all four noun classes, while the plurals make this distinction, as shown in the chart below.

{| class="wikitable"
!  
!  
! class I
! class II-IV
|-
! rowspan=3 | 1st person singular
! abs. & erg.
| colspan=2; align=center | di
|-
! oblique
| colspan=2; align=center | dā-
|-
! genitive 1
| colspan=2; align=center | dey
|-
! rowspan=3 | 2nd person singular
! abs. & erg
| colspan=2; align=center | mi
|-
! oblique
| colspan=2; align=center | debe-1 dow-2
|-
! genitive 1
| colspan=2; align=center | debi
|-
! rowspan=4; align=center | 1st person plural
! absolutive
| eli
| ela
|-
! oblique
| elu-
| ela-
|-
! special gen. 13
| colspan=2; align=center | eli
|-
! special gen. 23
| colspan=2; align=center | eliz
|-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person plural
! absolutive
| meži
| meža
|-
! oblique
| mežu-
| meža-
|-
! special gen. 13
| colspan=2; align=center | meži
|-
! special gen. 23
| colspan=2; align=center | mežiz
|}

# This form is used before a syllable-final consonant, such as the suffix ''-r''.
# This form is used before a syllable-initial consonant, such as the suffix ''-de''.
# The special forms of the two genitives is used when the possessor is a close group, typically a family, thus ''eli eniy'' is used for "our mother" instead of ''elus eniy''. The plural demonstrative ''žedi'' ("they") also shows this feature, being ''žedi'' in the close group genitive 1 and ''žediz'' in the close group genitive 2. For ordinary possessors these forms would be ''žedus'' and ''žeduz'', respectively.

* There is also a reflexive personal pronoun, meaning "self" or "oneself", which is ''žo'' and ''ne-'' in its oblique form, respectively.

====Demonstrative pronouns====
[[demonstrative|Demonstrative pronouns]] are suffixes that are attached to the corresponding noun. They inflect for noun classes, number and case and make a two-way distinction into '''proximal''' (close, English: "this/these") and '''distal''' (far, English: "that/those"), the latter of which are also used as third person pronouns.

The oblique forms are used attributively and also as a base to which other (oblique) case suffixes can be attached.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | 
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! colspan=2 | 
! Class I
! Class II-IV
! Class I
! Class II-IV
|-
! rowspan=2 | Proximal
! Absolutive
| -da
| -du
| colspan=2; align=center | -ziri
|-
! Oblique
| -si
| -ła-, -ł1
| -zi
| -za
|-
! rowspan=2 | Distal
! Absolutive
| colspan=2; align=center | že
| colspan=2; align=center | žedi
|-
! Oblique
| nesi
| neło, neł1
| žedu
| žeda
|}

# The ''-ł'' forms are used optionally after vowels at the end of words.

====Interrogative pronouns====
[[interrogative word|Interrogative pronouns]] make a distinction between human ("who?") and non-human ("what?") only in the oblique forms, but not in the absolutive. The non-human interrogative pronouns require the class IV affix when triggering agreement.

{| class="wikitable"
! 
! Human
! Non-human
|-
! Absolutive
| colspan=2; align=center | šebi
|-
! Oblique
| łā
| łina
|-
! Ergative
| łu
| łinā
|}

Other interrogative pronouns include:
* ''dice'' ("how much?")
* ''didiyu'' ("which?")
* ''didur'' ("how?")
* ''łina-s'' ("why?"), this seems to be the genitive 1 form of non-human oblique interrogative pronoun
* ''nā'' ("where?"), its oblique form seems to be ''na-''
* ''neti'' ("when?")
* ''šidā'' ("why?")
* ''šomo'' ("how many?")

===Verbs===
Tsez has a rich verbal morphology with many categories. Despite the great variety in [[conjugation]], the only truly irregular verb is "to be" with some forms being ''yoł'' (present), ''ānu'' (present negative), ''zow-'' (past), etc. There are 4 morphological groups, according to the final letter of the stem: The first group ends in a consonant, the second in ''i'', the third in ''-u'' and the fourth group contains the verbs with the variable ending ''-d'' (before a vowel) / ''-y'' (elsewhere).

====Tense-aspect-mood====
There are five [[grammatical tense|tense]]-[[grammatical aspect|aspect]] forms in the [[grammatical mood#indicative mood|indicative mood]], shown in the following table with examples for verbs with vocalic and consonantal stem endings.

{| class="wikitable"
! Form !! Suffix !! With ''-iš-'' ("to eat") !! With ''-esu-'' ("to find")
|-
! past unwitnessed
| -n(o) || -iš-no ''"ate"''|| -esu-n ''"found"''
|-
! past witnessed
| -s(i) || -iš-si ''"ate"''|| -esu-s ''"found"''
|-
! present
| -x(o) || -iš-xo ''"eat"''|| -esu-x ''"find"''
|-
! future definite
| -an || -iš-an ''"will eat"''|| -esʷ-an ''"will find"''
|-
! future indefinite
| substitution of the vowel in the stem before the last consonant to ''ā'' || -āš ''"will eat"''|| -āsu ''"will find"''
|}

* In interrogative sentences (English "wh-questions"), the past witnessed suffix is ''-ā'' instead of ''-s(i)''.
* In yes-no questions, the finite verb receives the additional ending ''-ā'', except for the past witnessed form, which receives the ending ''-iyā'' (after consonants) or ''-yā'' (after vowels).
* Of the two different future tenses, the definite one bears the connotation of being wanted by the speaker ("I want and I will...") and is often used with the first person, while the indefinite one (simply "I will...") tends to be used with second and third.
* Other moods are formed as follows:
** The '''[[imperative mood|imperative]]''' has no suffix for intransitive verbs (e.g. ''-ikʼi!'' "go!") and the suffix ''-o'' for transitive verbs (e.g. ''-tʼetʼr-o!'' "read!"); the verb is usually put in the first position in the phrase then.
** The '''[[optative mood|optative]]''' adds a ''-ƛ'' to the imperative form, e.g. ''tʼetʼr-o-ƛ!'' ("let him read!").
* There is also a great variety of analytical forms for verbs:
** '''emphatic future''' = infinitive + "to be" (present tense); e.g. ''-ikʼ-a yoł'' ("shall go")
** '''[[continuous aspect]]''' = imperfect gerund + "to be" (in its appropriate tense-aspect form); e.g. ''-ikʼi-x zow-si'' ("was going")
** '''[[perfective aspect]]''' = perfect gerund + "to be"; e.g. ''-ikʼi-n zow-si'' ("had gone")
** '''[[perfect tense]]''' = resultative participle + "to be"; e.g. ''-ikʼ-āsi zow-si'' ("had gone")
** '''intentive''' = present participle + "to be"; e.g. ''-ikʼi-xo-si zow-si'' ("intended to go")
** '''resultative''' = imperfective/perfective gerund + resultative participle of ''-iči-'' ("be located") + "to be"; e.g. ''ikʼi-n -ič-ā-si zow-si'' ("was gone") or ''ikʼi-x -ič-ā-si zow-si'' ("was in the state of being on his way hence")

====Negation====
The basic negation suffix in the indicative is ''-čʼV'' with '''V''' being a vowel that can be different, depending on the tense/aspect/mood of the verb; it is inserted after the verb stem. With the example verb ''-ikʼi-'' ("to go"), the following forms are possible:
{| class="wikitable"
! Form !! Negation Suffix !! With ''-ikʼi-'' ("to go")
|-
! past unwitnessed negative
| -čʼey- || -ikʼi-čʼey ''"didn't go"''
|-
! past witnessed negative
| -čʼu- || -ikʼi-čʼu-s ''or'' -ikʼi-čʼu ''"didn't go"''
|-
! present negative
| -ānu- ''(present negative of "to be")'' || -ikʼi-x-ānu ''"doesn't go"''
|-
! future definite negative
| -čʼi- || -ikʼ-ā-čʼi-n ''"won't go"''
|-
! future indefinite negative
| -čʼi- || -ākʼi-čʼi ''"won't go"''
|}

* The prohibitive (i.e., the negative imperative) is expressed by adding the suffix ''-no'' to the future indefinite form of the verb, e.g. ''-āš-no!'' ("don't eat!").
* The negative optative form simply adds a ''-ƛ'' to that: ''āš-no-ƛ'' ("let him not eat!").

====Non-finite forms====
[[Participle]]s behave like adjectives and only vary according to the class agreement, which gets attached to them as prefixes. There are several different kinds of participles in the Tsez language:
{| class="wikitable"
! Form !! Suffix !! With ''-iš-'' ("to eat")
|-
! past participle
| -ru ''(stem vowel → ''ā'')1'' || -āš-ru ''"having eaten"''
|-
! past negative participle
| -čʼi-ru ''(stem vowel → ''ā'')1'' || -āš-čʼi-ru ''"not having eaten"''
|-
! resultative participle
| -ā-si || -iš-ā-si ''"in the state of having eaten"''
|-
! resultative negative participle
| -ani || -iš-ani ''"in the state of not having eaten"''
|-
! present participle
| -xo-si || -iš-xo-si ''"eating"''
|-
! present negative participle
| -x-ānu-si || -iš-x-ānu-si ''"not eating"''
|}

Converbs, like [[gerund]]s and verbal adverbs, are very numerous in Tsez. The following list gives only an incomplete account. The table illustrates the relationship between the temporal converb (C) and the main verb (V):
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Relationship between C and V !! Suffix !! With ''-ikʼi-'' ("to go")
|-
! rowspan=3 | C and V are simultaneous
! manner of action
| -x || -ikʼi-x
|-
! punctual
| -ƛʼ || -ikʼi-ƛʼ
|-
! simple simultaneous
| -ƛʼorey / -zey || -ikʼi-ƛʼorey / -ikʼi-zey ''"while he goes/went"''
|-
! rowspan=3 | C precedes V
! manner of action
| -n || -ikʼi-n
|-
! simple anterior
| -nosi || -ikʼi-nosi ''"after he goes/went"''
|-
! immediate anterior
| -run ''(stem vowel → ''ā'')1'' || -ākʼi-run ''"immediately after he goes/went"''
|-
! rowspan=2 | C follows V
! simple posterior
| -zaƛʼor || -ikʼi-zaƛʼor ''"before he goes/went"''
|-
! terminative
| -a-ce || -ikʼ-a-ce ''"until he goes/went"''
|}

# The stem vowel here is the vowel before the last consonant. Note that stems, different from roots, include causatives; thus ''-ikʼi-'' ("to go") becomes ''-ākʼi-'', but its causative form ''-ikʼir-'' ("to let go") becomes ''-ikʼār-''! Sometimes also unarticulated epenthetic vowels can be lengthened to ''ā'', as in: ''tʼetʼr-'' ("to learn"), which becomes ''tʼetʼār-''.

* Other non-temporal converbs are:
** '''perfective''' (completive) and '''imperfective''' (durative) '''converbs''' are identical to the past unwitnessed and present forms respectively: ''-n(o)'' and ''-x(o)''
** '''locative converb''': ''-z-ā'', stem vowel changes to ''ā''
** '''causal converb''': ''-xoy'', ''-za-ƛʼ'' or ''-za-q''; e.g. ''-iš-xoy'' ("because of going")
** '''conditional converb''': ''-nāy'' or ''-łi''; e.g. ''iš-nāy''("if he eats")
** '''concessive converb''': ''-łin''
* '''infinitive''': ''-a''; e.g. ''-iš-a'' ("to eat")
* '''verbal noun''': ''-(a)ni''; e.g. ''-iš-ani'' ("the eating") and ''-rečʼ-ni'' ("the cutting")

====Potential & causative====
The [[Grammatical mood#Potential mood|potential mood]] receives the suffix ''-(e)ł'', while the [[Grammatical mood#Causative mood|causative mood]] suffix is ''-(e)r''. Again, the epenthetic vowel is dropped when the stem ends in a vowel or if another suffix starting with a vowel is attached. Together with the definite future suffixes ''-an'', for instance, the epenthetic vowel has to be dropped: ''iš-er'' ("let him eat"), but ''iš-r-an'' ("will let him eat").

===Particles===
Tsez has a rich set of [[grammatical particle|particles]], most of them occuring as [[clitic]]s. The particle ''-tow'' shows general emphasis while ''-kin'' shows general emphasis and focusing. A contrastively topicalized constituent is marked by the particle ''-gon''. Being clitics, they can be attached to any [[part of speech]]. There is also a quotation particle that is used in direct reported speech and appears as the suffix ''-ƛin'' after the quotation if the last word is a verb and as a free particle ''ƛin'' in all other cases. Compare ''Di žekʼu yołƛin eƛix kʼetʼā'' ("'I am a man', says the cat") versus ''Tupi ƛin eƛix kʼetʼā'' ("'A rifle', says the cat"). There are also other free particles like ''hudu'' ("yes"), ''āy'' ("no") or the negative particle ''ānu''.

===Word formation===
====Derivation====
=====Noun-forming suffixes=====
The following list is a selection of suffixes used to form nouns from other parts of speech as well as other nouns.
* ''-bi'' / ''-zi'' (added to place names): '''residents''' e.g. ''Newo-bi'' / ''Newo-zi'' ("resident of Mokok", from ''Newo'' "Mokok")
* ''-łi'' (added to singular absolutive nouns denoting persons or to adjectives in the class IV form): '''abstract nouns''' and '''occupations''' e.g. ''laɣ-łi'' ("slavery", from ''laɣ'' "slave"), ''učitel-łi'' ("teaching", from the Russian loan ''učitel'' "teacher"), ''r-igu-łi'' ("grace, kindness", from ''-igu'' "good")
* ''-kʼu'' (added to verbs in the iterative stem forms): '''instruments''' or '''personal descriptions''' e.g. ''ˁuƛʼno-kʼu'' ("coward", from ''ˁuƛʼ-'', "to be afraid"), ''ˁiya-kʼu'' ("cryer", from ''ˁiyad-'', "to cry")
* ''-ni'' (added to verb stems and onomatopoeic nouns): '''abstract nouns''' e.g. ''rečʼ-ni'' ("sharpness", from ''rečʼ-'' "to cut"), ''ˁoy-ni'' ("mooing", from ''ˁoy'' "moo")
* ''-qu'' (added to nouns in their oblique stem) or the lesser used Awar suffix ''-qan'': '''container''' or '''occupation''' e.g. ''magala-qu'' ("baker"), ''bocʼ-a-qu'' ("wolf-trap"), ''qido-qan'' ("mason")
* ''-qʼoy'' / ''-qoy'' / ''-ħoy'' (added to singular oblique noun stems): '''enveloping objects''' e.g. ''reƛʼi-qoy'' ("glove", from ''reƛʼa'' "hand")
* ''-yo'' (added to the lative singular of a noun): '''possessor''' e.g. ''kotʼu-r-yo'' ("bearded man", from ''kotʼu'' "beard")

=====Adjective-forming suffixes=====
The following suffixes can be used to derive adjectives from other words:
* ''-mu'' (added to singular absolutive noun, adjectives or verbs): '''simple adjective''' e.g. ''boryo-mu'' ("sickly", from ''boryo'' "sore, wound"), ''atʼi-mu'' ("unripe", from ''atʼiy'' "wet"), ''šakarya-mu'' ("jealous", from ''šakaryad-'' "to be jealous")
* ''-šay'' (added to oblique noun stems): '''inseperable possessing''' e.g. ''čakaryo-šay čay'' ("sweet tea", literally "sugar-containing tea")
* ''-tay'' (added to oblique noun stems): '''absence''', '''lacking''' e.g. ''ciyo-tay'' ("unsalted")
* ''-xu'' (added to oblique noun stems): '''seperable possessing''' e.g. ''ciyo-xu raƛʼ'' ("soil with salt crystals")

=====Verb-forming suffixes=====
Some verb-forming suffixes, like the causative and potential derivatives, have already been mentioned in the section about the verbal morphology. Other examples include:
* ''-kʼ-'' (added to qualitative adjectives, adverbs and some intransitive verbs ending in ''-x''): '''transitive verbs''' e.g. ''atʼi-kʼ-'' ("to dampen, to saok", from ''atʼiy'' "wet"), ''bito-kʼ-'' ("to move sth.", from ''bittay'' "over there"), ''łicʼo-kʼ-'' ("to unite", from ''łicʼox-'' "to mix")
* ''-ł-'' (added to qualitative adjectives and adverbs): '''intransitive verbs''' e.g. ''atʼi-ł-'' ("to become wet", from ''atʼiy'' "wet"), ''ade-x-'' ("to move forward", from ''adāy'' "in front")

====Compounding & reduplication====
In Tsez it is also possible to create new words from combining existing ones; usually nouns and verbs are derived, but there also exist compound adjectives and adverbs. It shall be noted that only the last component of the compound inflects, as it is the head of the phrase. However, it does not necessarily reign the noun class assignment for compound nouns — if one of the two components belongs to class I, then the whole compound is of this class, otherwise it is automatically assigned to noun class II. Sometimes, the last component is truncated (see fourth example). Suffixation may also occur (see first example). The following list is not exhaustive:
* ''debi-dey-łi'' "quarrel, dividing up" (lit. "your-my" + nominalizer ''-łi'')
* ''eni-obiy'' or ''eni-obu'' "parents" (lit. "mother-father")
* ''ħotʼo-čʼel'' "stirrup" (lit. "foot-place")
* ''-ikʼi-nex-'' "to go back and forth" (lit. "go-come")
* ''ƛʼiri-ku'' "shawl" (lit. ''ƛʼiri'' "above" - ''kur'' "throw")
* ''niga-cʼuda'' "bruised" (lit. "red-green")
* ''rigu-žuka'' "anything" (lit. "good-bad")
* ''taqqo-naqqo'' "back and forth" (lit. "on that side - on this side")
* ''tʼitʼi-ečʼ-'' "hash" (lit. "tear-cut up")

Another common way to derive new words is [[reduplication]], which can derive nouns, as well as adjectives and verbs. In reduplicating nouns, the initial syllable can often undergo a change, as in ''xisi-basi'' "changes" or ''bix-mix'' (herbs). It is used to intensify adjectives (e.g. ''r-očʼi-r-očʼiy'' "very cold") and verbs (e.g. ''-okʼ-okʼ-'' "to stab repeatedly") but is also used for [[onomatopoeia]] (e.g. ''ħi-ħi'' "neigh").

Another highly productive way of forming verbs is the combination of a word (often a loan from Arabic or Avar) and the Tsez verbs ''-oq-'' ("to stay, to become") or ''-od-'' ("to do"), although some combinations can also be formed with other verbs. Note that only the second word is inflected, while the first one remains uninflected. Some examples are:
* ''bercin -oq-'' "to be decorated" (from Avar ''берцинав'' (''bercinaw'') "beautiful")
* ''paradat -od-'' "to sell" (from Russian ''продать'' (''prodat’'') "to sell")
* ''razwod b-od-'' "to divorce" (from Russian ''развод'' (''razvod'') "divorce")
* ''riƛu riƛʼ-'' "to plough" (lit. "ploughing-field plough")
* ''rokʼ-ƛʼo-r r-ay-'' "to remember" (lit. "heart-SUPER-LAT III-arrive")
* ''rokʼu r-exu-'' "to feel pity'' (lit. "heart die")
* ''sapu y-od-'' "to destroy"
* ''tʼamizi -od-'' "to cause" (from Avar ''тамизе'' (''tʼamize'') "to force")
* ''woržizi -oq-'' "to fly" (from Avar ''-оржизе'' (''-oržize'') "to fly")
* ''xabar b-od-'' "to talk" (from Arabic ''خبر'' (''xabar'') "news, message" via Avar ''хабар'' (''xabar'') "story")

==Syntax==
===Noun phrase===
[[Noun phrase]]s (NP) per definition have a nominal head, which can be a noun with modifiers, a pronoun or a substantivized expression such as a participle with the nominalizer ''-łi'', [[verbal noun]]s or substantivized restrictive adjectives (as in English: "the older one") — the latter one bears the suffix ''-ni'' directly after the adjective stem. They all inflect for case.

As Tsez is a [[Branching (linguistics)|head-last]] language, all modifiers precede the head noun and agree with it in class. The neutral order of modifiers is usually:
# relative clause
# unemphatic possessive pronoun
# emphatic possessive pronoun
# restrictive adjective
# demonstrative
# numeral / quantifier
# non-restrictive adjective
Note that the order of element number 4, 5 and 6 may vary:

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''sideni''||''ˁaƛ-ā''||''b-iči-xosi''||''nesi-s''||''b-aqʼˁu''||''žuka-tʼa-ni''||''ˁagarłi''
|-
|another||village-IN:ESS||IPL-be-PRSPRT||he-GEN1||IPL-many||bad-DISTR-RESTR||relative
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"his many unpleasant relatives who live in the next village"
|}

Modifiers can also include oblique noun phrases, which then take one of the two genitive suffixes depending on the case of the head noun: ''-si'' for absolutive, ''-zo'' for oblique head nouns. Compare:
:''ħon-ƛʼo-si ˁadala'' ("the fool on the hill", absolutive)
and
:''ħon-ƛʼo-zo ˁadala-r'' ("to the fool on the hill", dative/lative)

===Verb phrase===
[[Verb phrase]]s (VP) are phrases whose head is a verb or a copula. Verbs can have different transitivities which have a direct effect on the case distribution for their nominal arguments.

====Copulas====
[[Copula]]s are used in the Tsez language to combine the subject with a noun phrase or with predicative adjectives and can in these cases be translated with the English copula "to be". The subject as well as the predicative noun stands in the absolutive case and is thus unmarked. If an environmental condition is described in form of an adjective, the adjective requires class IV agreement. Compare the following examples:

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''ˁAli-s''||''obiy''||''aħo''||''yoł''
|-
|Ali-GEN1||father||shepherd||be:PRS
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"Ali's father is a shepherd."
|}
and
:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''ciq-qo''||''r-očʼiy''||''zow-si''
|-
|forest-POSS:ESS||'''IV'''-cold||be-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"It was cold in the forest."
|}

====Intransitive verbs====
The only argument of intransitive verbs stands in the unmarked absolutive case. The verb agrees with the noun in class.

An example phrase would be: ''is b-exu-s'' ("the bull died").

====Monotransitive verbs====
Monotransitive verbs are verbs that take two arguments. As Tsez is an absolutive/ergative language, the subject, or — to be more precise — the agent, requires the ergative case, while the direct object (or patient) requires the absolutive case. The direct object of a transitive verb is thus marked in the same way as the subject of an intransitive verb. Again, the verb agrees in class with the absolutive (i.e., the direct object).

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''žekʼ-ā''||''gulu''||'''''b'''-okʼ-si''
|-
|man-ERG||horse:ABS||'''III'''-hit-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"The man hit the horse."
|}

Both arguments, the agent as well as the patient, can be omitted if they are clear from the context.

====Ditransitive verbs====
Ditransitive verbs are verbs that require 3 arguments: a subject (or agent), a direct object (or patient, sometimes also called theme) and an indirect object (or recipient). In English "to give" and "to lend" are typical ditransitive verbs. In Tsez the agent takes the ergative and the patient takes the absolutive case. The recipient's case depends on the [[semantics|semantic]] nature of the transfer of possession or information: if it's a permanent transfer (e.g. "to give (as a present)"), the recipient takes the dative/lative case (ending in ''-(e)r''), if it's a non-permanent transfer (e.g. "to lend") or if it's incomplete, the recipient takes any of the locative cases. Two examples will illustrate the difference:

Permanent transfer:
:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''ˁAl-ā''||''kidbe-r''||''surat''||''teƛ-si''
|-
|Ali-ERG||girl-LAT||picture:ABS||give-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"Ali gave the girl a picture (for good, e.g. as a gift)."
|}

Temporary transfer:
:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''ˁAl-ā''||''kidbe-qo-r''||''surat''||''teƛ-si''
|-
|Ali-ERG||girl-POSS-LAT||picture:ABS||give-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=7 align="center"|"Ali lent the girl a picture."
|}

====Affective clauses====
Affective clauses have either verbs of perception or psychological verbs as predicate. Those verbs are: "be bored/bother", "become known", "find", "forget", "hate", "hear", "know", "love/like", "miss" and "see". The experiencer (which would be the subject in the corresponding English sentence) is usually in the lative case, while the stimulus (the object in the English sentence) takes the absolutive case.

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''ˁAli-r''||''Patʼi''||''y-eti-x''
|-
|Ali-LAT||Fatima:ABS||II-love-PRS
|-
|colspan=3 align="center"|"Ali loves Fatima."
|}

====Potential clauses====
Potential clauses are the equivalent to English clauses involving the words "can" or "be able to". In Tsez this is expressed by the verbal suffix ''-ł''; the subject of the clause then takes the possessive case (''-q(o)'') instead of the ergative, while the object of the verb is in the absolutive.

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''kʼetʼu-q''||''ɣˁay''||''ħaƛu-'''ł'''-xo''
|-
|cat-POSS:ESS||milk:ABS||drink-'''POT'''-PRS
|-
|colspan=3 align="center"|"The cat can drink milk."
|}

====Causativization====
[[Causative]] constructions ("to make/let someone do something") are formed by the causative suffix ''-r''. It increases the [[valency (linguistics)|valency]] of any verb by 1. When a ditransitive verb is formed from a transitive one, the causee (i.e. the argument that is subject and object at the same time) appears in the possessive case (''-q(o)''); see the example below (the ''e'' before the causative suffix is an epenthetic vowel):

:{| style="border: 1px solid black;"
|''aħ-ā''||''čanaqan-qo''||''zey''||''žekʼ-e'''r'''-si''
|-
|shepherd-ERG||hunter-POSS:ESS||bear:ABS||hit-'''CAUS'''-PSTWIT
|-
|colspan=3 align="center"|"The shepherd made the hunter hit the bear."
|}

==Numerals==
Numerals come in two different forms: in the absolutive case and as an oblique stem (always ending in ''-a'') to which other case endings are attached when the numerals are used nonattributively. The oblique form is also used when it refers to a non-absolutive noun, as in ''sida ˁaƛār'' ("to one/a village").

{| class="wikitable"
!   !! Absolutive !! Oblique
|-
! '''1'''
| sis || sida
|-
! '''2'''
| qʼˁano || qʼˁuna
|-
! '''3'''
| łˁono || łˁora
|-
! '''4'''
| uyno || uyra
|-
! '''5'''
| łeno || łera
|-
! '''6'''
| iłno || iłłira
|-
! '''7'''
| ˁoƛno || ˁoƛƛora
|-
! '''8'''
| biƛno || biƛƛira
|-
! '''9'''
| očʼčʼino || očʼčʼira
|-
! '''10'''
| ocʼcʼino || ocʼcʼira
|-
! '''11'''
| ocʼcʼino sis / siyocʼi || ocʼcʼira sida
|-
! '''12'''
| ocʼcʼino qʼˁano / qʼˁayocʼi || ocʼcʼira qʼˁuna
|-
! '''13'''
| ocʼcʼino łˁono / łˁoyocʼi || ocʼcʼira łˁora
|-
! '''14'''
| ocʼcʼino uyno / uwocʼi || ocʼcʼira uyra
|-
! '''15'''
| ocʼcʼino łeno / łewocʼi || ocʼcʼira łera
|-
!'''16'''
| ocʼcʼino iłno / iłocʼi || ocʼcʼira iłłira
|-
! '''17'''
| ocʼcʼino ˁoƛno / ˁoƛocʼi || ocʼcʼira ˁoƛƛora
|-
! '''18'''
| ocʼcʼino biƛno / biƛocʼi || ocʼcʼira biƛƛira
|-
! '''19'''
| ocʼcʼino očʼčʼino / ečʼocʼi || ocʼcʼira očʼčʼira
|-
! '''20'''
| quno || qura
|-
! '''100'''
| bišon || bišonra
|-
! '''1,000'''
| ˁazar || ˁazarra
|}

* There are two ways of forming the numbers 11 through 19, but only the first way also exists in oblique form. The second form with the suffix ''-ocʼi'' cannot be declined.
* Above 20, numbers are formed on the basis of multiples of 20: ''qʼˁanoqu'' (40), ''łˁonoqu'' (60) and ''uynoqu'' (80). For the oblique forms, the suffix ''-ra'' is added for all items.
* The numeral for 100 has an alternative form ''bišom'' used before the suffix ''-no'' in compound numerals.
* The numeral for 1000, ''ˁazar'', seems to be loan to [[Persian language|Persian]] هزار (''hezār'', thousand).
* Higher hundreds and thousands are expressed simply by juxtaposition, the multiplyer preceding the larger number.
* Compound numerals are formed by attaching the suffix ''-no'' (''and'') to the higher number and placing the lower one right after it. For example, 47 would be ''qʼˁanoquno ˁoƛno'' in Tsez. A number like 72 would be expressed as "sixty-twelve" (''łˁonoquno qʼˁayocʼi'' or ''łˁonoquno ocʼcʼino qʼˁano'').

'''Cardinal numbers''' (as in English "one, two, three") precede the nouns, which then do ''not'' stand in their plural forms but in the singular instead; e.g.: ''uyno is'' ("four oxen"). 
'''Ordinal numbers''' (as in English "first, second, third") are constructed by combining the cardinal numbers with the word ''āƛiru''. Hence, ''qʼˁano āƛiru ɣudi'' means "the second day". 
'''Adverbial numbers''' (as in English "once, twice, thrice") are constructed by replacing the suffix ''-no'' by ''-x'', thus "twice" becomes the adverb ''qʼˁa-x'' in Tsez.

==Sample of the Tsez language==
This is a Tsez tale written in the Asakh dialect using a Latin-based orthography.

===Latin orthography===
'''''Kʼetʼus Hunar''''' 
''Zewnoƛax zewčʼeyƛax bˁeƛon bocʼin zirun qayno. Sidaquł šigoħno sadaqorno boyno ħukmu: yaqułtow begira bocʼi ħonƛʼār miƛʼeł xizāz xizyo rišʷa yoł. Bˁeƛā begirno qay łˁāł xizāz, bocʼin zirun regirno ħonƛʼār miƛʼeł xizāz. Ɣudod, žedi raynosi beƛʼez reqenyoxor, ziru boqno uhi-ehƛada buq boƛāxzāzarno boqno. Zirus uhi-ehi teqxoy, ɣʷaybi kʼoƛin elār, bocʼi buq bātuzāzarno boqno bikʼin reqenyoƛer, besurno ƛʼarayaw miƛʼi. Miƛʼin bisno bocʼin zirun xizor rutin qʼayƛʼār. Rizirno cʼidoƛʼor ƛoħon begirno łāƛʼor qay. Kikxogon zewno bočʼikʼxo kʼetʼu. Qayir zewāčʼey rikʷayxo; nešuruxay nełor rikʷayxo zewčʼey. Kʼetʼu, ełor baynosi qay, boqno kʼekʼbikʼa. Kʼekʼbikʼni teqnosi, qay łikin rixerčʼeytow boxin xizor. Bˁeƛā esirno: "Šidā boxā rayirčʼey łin?" Elo didiyƛa žekʼu yoł-ƛin eƛin qayā. Aħugon rikʼin łāxor zirun qayno. Žedi raynosi kikxor žedā esirno kʼetuq: "Mi šebi?" Di žekʼu yoł-ƛin eƛin kʼetʼā. Šebi že debez ħiroƛʼ esirxo zirā. Tupi ƛin eƛix kʼetʼā. Dicce rˁuƛʼno zirun qayno, amma biyxoy kʼetʼu yāłru, xizyo łˁonon zenzi rikʼin raħira reƛ. Bˁeƛo buqełno bičin ažoz kʼodrexāzay, rołikʼno aħyabin kecno, kʼetʼu tataniłxo zewno cʼidox. Bˁeƛā kʼekʼrikʼerxo zewno aħyabi. Že rikʷayxoy, kʼetʼuz rokʼƛʼor rayno, že elo aw ƛin, hudu betʼtʼun kʼoƛin elor. Dicce bˁuƛʼzāq bˁeƛqo regin ixiytʼatow qˁaƛubin, boxin ciqxār. Bocʼezno qayizno, ziruzno rokʼƛʼor rayno baysi bāsu ixiytow ħaywan šebin, nełoq že riqičʼey kʼiriłno roxin. Cʼikʼiy reƛ miƛes ƛexun kʼetʼur. ʕoƛiran ɣˁudeł kʼetʼu bišno, racʼno baɣʷace dawla bocʼesno zirusno.''

===Translation===
'''The Cat's Feat''' 
Once upon a time there were a pig, a wolf, a fox and a hare. One day they gathered together and decided that today they would send the wolf into the mountains for a sheep and they would eat. The pig sent the hare for water and sent the wolf and the fox into the mountain for a ram. At night, when they came to the flock of sheep, the fox began to moan from the eastern side. Since they heard the fox's moaning, the dogs ran in that direction and the wolf went towards the flock from the west and found a fat ram. Having taken the ram, the wolf and the fox returned to the camp. They put the pan on the fire and sent the hare for water. At the spring the cat was freezing. The hare couldn't see; at night the hare couldn't see. When the hare arrived there, the cat began to move. When he heard the movement, the hare ran back without taking any water. The pig asked: "Why did you run away without bringing water?" The hare said that there was some man there. Again the fox and the hare went to the water. When they came to the spring, they asked the cat: "What are you?" — "I am a man", said the cat. "What is that on your shoulder?", asks the fox. "A rifle", says the cat. The fox and the hare were very frightened, but since they knew it was a cat, afterwards the three of them went together to cook meat. The pig hid behind a bunch of trees and, pushing out its ears, slept, and the cat was warming itself by the fire. The pig was moving its ears. Since the cat saw it, it thought it was a mouse and in a rush jumped there. The pig was very frightened and, emitting loud shouts, ran away to the forest. The wolf, the hare and the fox thought that a great animal or something was coming and, one running faster than the other, they ran away. All the ram's meat was left to the cat. For seven days the cat ate, ate until it was full the spoils of the wolf and the fox.

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal | author=Alekseev, Mikhail E. & Rajabov, Ramazan N. | title=Prerequisites to the formation of Tsez writing system | journal=Caucasian perspectives | year=1993 | pages=372-376}}
* {{cite journal | author=Alekseev, Mikhail E. & Rajabov, Ramazan N. | title=Tsez language | journal=Indigenous languages of the Caucasus | volume=3}}
* {{cite journal | author=[[Bernard Comrie|Comrie, Bernard]] | title=Gender affixes in Tsez | journal=The Emergence of the Modern Language Sciences: Studies on the Transition from Historical-Comparative to Structural Linguistics in Honour of E.F.K. Koerner | year=1999 | volume=2 | pages=279–288}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard | title=Participles in Tsez: An emergent word class? | journal=Complex Sentences in Grammar and Discourse: Essays in Honor of Sandra A. Thompson | year=2002 | pages=19–30}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard | title=Oblique-case subjects in Tsez | journal=Non-nominative Subjects | year=2004 | volume=1 | pages=113–127}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria | title=The great Daghestanian case hoax | journal=Case, typology and grammar | year=1998 | pages=95-114}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria | title=Form and function in syntax: relative clauses in Tsez | journal=Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics | year=1999 | volume=2 | pages=77–92}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria | title=Reflexivity in Tsez | journal=Typology and Linguistic Theory: From Description to Explanation, for the 60th Birthday of Aleksandr E. Kibrik | year=1999 | pages=319–339}}
* {{cite journal | author=Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria | title=Constraints on reflexivization in Tsez | journal=Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson | year=2003 | pages=265–289}}
* Khalilov, Majid Sh. (1999). ''Цезско-русский словарь'' (Tsez-Russian dictionary). Makhachkala: Institut JaLI DNC RAN. ISBN 5-87444-086-0
* {{cite journal | author=Polinsky, Maria & Comrie, Bernard | title=Agreement in Tsez | journal=Folia Linguistica | issue=Studies in Agreement | year=1999 | volume=33.2 | pages=109–130}}
* {{cite journal | author=Polinsky, Maria & Potsdam, Eric | title=Long-Distance Agreement and Topic in Tsez | journal=Natural Language and Linguistic Theory | year=2001 | issue=19 | pages=583-646}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ddo Ethnologue report on Tsez (Dido)]
* [http://ling.ucsd.edu/~polinsky/pubs/BLS25.pdf A paper about the verb "to begin" in Tsez] (by Maria Polinsky)
* [http://ling.ucsd.edu/~polinsky/tsez.html Glossed sample texts with audio]
* [http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf Tsez morphonology] (by Ramazan Rajabov)
* [http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl27.pdf The class category in Tsez] (by Ramazan Rajabov)
* [http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl28.pdf The double-absolutive construction in Tsez] (by Ramazan Rajabov)

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Nakh-Dagestanian]]

Tschetschenisch

2013-02-04T19:38:46Z

MRiessler: cat

{{Infobox_Sprache|
Sprache=Tschetschenisch, Chechen, Нохчийн мотт
|Länder= Tschetschenische Republik, Nordostkaukasus, Russland
|Sprecher= ca. 900 000
|Klassifikation=*[[Nordostkaukasische Sprachen|Nach-Dagestanische Sprachfamilie]]
**[[Nach-Sprachen]]
***[[Tschetschenisch-Inguschische Sprachen|Tschetschenisch-Inguschisch]]
|KSprache=Tschetschenisch
|Amtssprache=Tschetschenische Republik
|ISO1=ce
|ISO2B=che
|ISO2T=-
|SIL= cjc [http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=cjc]
}}

Zusammen mit [[Inguschisch]] und [[Batsbi]] (Tsova-Tush) bildet '''Tschetschenisch''' den [[Nach]]-Zweig der Nach-Dagestanischen Sprachfamilie. Tschetschenisch wird in der tschetschenischen Republik in Nordostkaukasus in Russland gesprochen. Alle Sprecher, die bis etwa 65-70 Jahre alt sind, beherrschen auch noch [[Russisch]].
Die Schriftsprache wurde nach der Oktoberrevolution 1917 geschaffen, und seit 1938 wird das kyrillische Alphabet statt des lateinischen verwendet.

== Phonologie==
Das Tschetschenische verwendet 32 Konsonanten und 15 Vokale. Es gibt außerdem eine große Zahl von Diphthongen. Die Silbenstruktur ist CV, CVC, es kommt auch VC vor, aber selten. Die wichtigsten phonologische Alternationen sind Konsonantenwechsel, Reduktion und Ablaut.

'''Anmerkung:''' In linguistischen Arbeiten zum Tschetschenischen verwendet man nicht die [[IPA]]-Transkription, sondern eine von [[Johanna Nichols]] entwickelte Umschrift in lateinischen Buchstaben.

== Morphologie==
Tschetschenisch ist eine [[Ergativsprache|ergativische]] und [[agglutinierende Sprache]]. Der [[Kasus]] wird zur Markierung der Nomen verwendet, die [[Nominalklasse]] des Subjekts oder direkten Objekts wird am Verb markiert. Zur [[Subordination]] werden [[Partizip]]ien, [[Masdar]] (nominalisiertes Verb) und [[Konverb]]en verwendet. Adverbiale Funktionen wie Vor-und Nachzeitigkeit werden durch Konverben augedrückt. Es gibt mehrere [[Aspekt (Linguistik)|Aspektarten]] im Tschetschenischen. Die Verben des '''temporären''' Aspekts beschreiben die einmalige Handlung, die sich nicht wiederholt, durch Verben des '''iterativen''' Aspekts werden die Handlungen ausgedrückt, die sich ohne Beschränkung wiederholen können.
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|1.|| ''mala''||
|-
| ||trinken (einmal)||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45 align='right'| 2.||''meela''||
|-
| ||trinken (mehrmals)
|-
|}
In der Kategorie [[Tempus]] wird [[Präsens]] (nicht [[progressiv]]), einfaches [[Präteritum]], Präteritum (selbst erfahrenes Ereignis), [[Imperfekt]], [[Plusquamperfekt]], [[Perfekt]], Präsens Progressiv, Präteritum Progressiv, [[Futur I]], [[Futur II]] unterschieden. Das Tschetschenische besitzt die Modusformen [[Indikativ]], [[Imperativ]] und [[Optativ]]. Der Imperativ hat drei Formen, einen einfachen Imperativ, einen schwachen Imperativ sowie einen höflichen Imperativ. Perfektive und imperfektive Aspektarten werden im Tschetschenischen durch Tempusformen ausgedrückt.

==== Nomen====
===== Kasus =====

Es gibt acht grundlegende Kasusformen und daneben noch fünf Formen, die vom Allativkasus abgeleitet sind und die Richtung, Lage und Herkunft anzeigen. Wenn der Stamm des Nomens auf einen Konsonant endet und die Kasusendung mit einem Konsonant beginnt, wird ein Vokal ''-a'' dazwischen eingefügt, z.B., ''q'olam'' (Bleistift) plus Komparativendung ''-l'': ''q'olam-'''al'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
! 
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! '''[[Absolutiv]]'''
| -∅
| -sh, -j, -ie
|-
! '''[[Genitiv]]'''
| -(a)n
| -sh-i(n)
|-
! '''[[Ergativ]]'''
| -uo, -s
| -a
|-
! '''[[Dativ]]'''
| -na
| -sh-na
|-
! '''[[Instrumental]]'''
| -ca
| -sh-ca
|-
! '''[[Lativ]]'''
| -x
| -ie-x
|-
! '''[[Komparativ]]'''
| -l
| -ie-l
|-
! '''[[Allativ]]'''
| -ga, ie
| -sh-ga
|}

Im Ergativkasus wird das Suffix ''-uo'' häufiger verwendet als das Suffix ''-s''. Das Suffix ''-s'' wird mit einer bestimmten Gruppe von Nomen (abhängig vom Dialekt), einschließlich Namen, verwendet.

===== Nominalklasse =====
Es gibt vier lexikalisch determinierte Nominalklassen im Tschetschenischen. Sie werden folgendermaßen markiert:
{| {{prettytable}}
! Nominalklasse
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! I
| v-
| b-/d
| nur zur Markierung der männlichen Personen
|-
! II
| -j
| rowspan='3' | b-
| hauptsächlich zur Markierung der weiblichen Personen
|-
! III
| b-
| zur Markierung der Tiere und unbelebten Gegenstände
|-
! IV
| d-
| zur Markierung einiger Personen (z. B. Kind, Braut), der Tiere und unbelebten Gegenstände
|-
|}

Es ist nicht ganz klar, zu welcher Klasse unbelebte Gegenstände und Tiere gehören. Alle Lehnwörter, die vom Russischen übernommen wurden und ihre ursprüngliche Form nicht geändert haben, gehören zu Klasse '''II'''. Die Klasse des Nomens hat Auswirkung auf die zugehörige Verbalform und wird als Präfix am Verb markiert. Bei den [[Transitivität|transitiven Verben]], falls kein Hilfsverb vorhanden ist (abhängig von Tempusform), kongruiert das Verb mit dem direktem Objekt. Bei intransitiven Verben kongruiert das Verb mit dem Subjekt.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|3.||''k'ant(V)''||'''''v'''-oedu''||
|-
| ||Junge.ABS'''1'''||V-gehen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Junge geht'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|4.||''jowas''||''xudar(D)''||'''''d'''-u'u'''''||
|-
| ||Mädchen.ERG||Brei.ABS||D-essen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Das Mädchen isst den Brei'||
|-
|}

'''1Anmerkung:''' alle Abkürzungen dieser Art sind unter [http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/files/morpheme.html The Leipzig Glossing Rules] zu finden.

===== Numerus =====
Substantive werden im Tschetschenischen für Singular und Plural flektiert. Der Singular ist unmarkiert und zur Markierung des Plurals wird ein Suffix ''-(a)sh'' verwendet, z.B.: ''qoor'' - ''qoor'''ash''''' (Birne - Birnen). Es gibt aber eine Gruppe von Nomen, die die Pluralform durch [[Suppletion]] bilden, z.B.: '''''jett''''' - '''''hweeli''''' (Kuh - Kühe) oder '''''stag''''' - '''''naax''''' (Mensch - Leute).

=== Verb ===
Es gibt eine Reihe von Verbformen: Infinitiv, Imperativ, Partizipien, Konverben, Masdar (nominalisiertes Verb). Am Verb können Nominalklasse: vier Nominalklassen, Tempus, Aspekt, Modus sowie derivationelle Verbformen (Kausativ, Doppel-Kausativ, direkter/indirekter Kausativ) markiert werden. Es gibt transitive, intransitive, ditransitive und inverse Verben (Verben mit Dativsubjekt).

==== Transitive/intransitive Verben ====
Tschetschenische Verben werden entweder als transitiv oder intransitiv kategorisiert. Transitive Verben haben ein direktes Objekt, auf das die Handlung einwirkt oder das als Ergebnis der Handlung vorliegt. Das Subjekt bei transitiven Verben steht immer im Ergativ. Das transitive Verb kongruiert in der [[Nominalklasse]] mit dem direkten Objekt, das Objekt steht im Absolutiv. Die Kongruenz wird als Präfix am Verb markiert.

{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|5.||''k'antas''||''kiexat''||''doeshu''||
|-
| ||Junge.ERG||Brief.ABS||D.lesen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Junge liest den Brief'||
|-
|}
Bei den intransitiven Verben steht das Subjekt im Absolutiv und, es gibt kein das direktes Objekt. Das intransitive Verb kongruiert in der Nominalklasse mit dem Subjekt. Die Kongruenz wird ebenfalls als Präfix am Verb markiert.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|6.||''hwooza''||'' dieka ''||''bieshahw''
|-
| ||Vogel.ABS||D.singen.PRS||Garten.LOC
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Vogel singt im Garten.'
|-
|}

==== Ditransitive Verben ====
Ditransitive Verben besitzen drei Argumente: Subjekt, direktes Objekt und indirektes Objekt. Es gibt zwei Typen von ditransitiven Verben im Tschetschenischen. Bei den Verben ''nehmen'', ''geben'' und ''sagen'' steht das indirekte Objekt entweder im Allativ oder im Dativ. Das Verb kongruiert mit dem direktem Objekt. Das Ziel der Handlung ist das indirekte Objekt und meist belebt.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|7 a.||''Zaras''||'' '''suna'''''||'' kniga''||'' j-alla''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||1s.DAT||Buch.ABS||J-geben.PRF||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|' Zara hat mir ein Buch gegeben (geschenkt).'
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |b.||''Zaras''||'' '''soega'''''||'' kniga''||'' j-alla''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||1s.ALL||Buch.ABS||J-geben.PRF||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|' Zara hat mir ein Buch gegeben (geborgt).'
|-
|}
Bei den Verben, wie ''jmd. anziehen'', ''schlagen'', die einen physischen Kontakt bezeichnen, muss das indirekte Objekt im Dativ stehen.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |8.||''Nanas''||'' bierana''||'' koch''||'' t'ajux''
|-
| ||Mutter.ERG||Kind.DAT||Kleid.ABS||anziehen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='4'|'Die Mutter zieht das Kleid dem Kind an.'
|-
|}

==== Inverse Verben====
Inverse Verben oder Verben mit Dativsubjekt sind im Tschetschenischen die Modalverben und die Verben der Emotionen. In der Regel steht das Subjekt im Dativ, das Objekt ist immer im Absolutiv, falls eins vorhanden ist.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |9.||''suona ''||'' xazaxieta''||'' iz''
|-
| ||1s.DAT||gefallen.PRS||3s.ABS
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Er gefällt mir.'
|-
|}

== Syntax ==
Die vorherrschende, aber nicht obligatorische Wortstellung ist SOV ([[Subjekt]] - [[Objekt]] - [[Verb]]). Die verbale Derivation im Tschetschenischen betrifft hauptsächlich die Subjekte. Die ditransitivierende Prozesse und antipassive Konstruktion verändern den Kasus des Subjekts zum Absolutiv, falls das Subjekt nicht ohnehin im Absolutiv ist. Die valenzverändernden Prozesse, die zur Transitivierung des Verbs führen, fügen ergative Subjekte hinzu. Die Derivation fügt neue Argumente hinzu oder verändert den Kasus von Argumenten, die bereits vorhanden sind.

=== Kausativ mit Suffix –(i)it, -ijt ===

Das Kausativ wird mit dem Suffix '''–(i)it''' oder '''-ijt''' (abhängig vom Verbstamm) gebildet. Die historische Bedeutung des Suffixes kommt von '''viita ''', was ''"lassen, zwingen, verursachen"'' bedeutet. Das Suffix ist sowohl mit transitiven als auch intransitiven Verben verwendbar und fügt einen [[Kausator]] als neues Subjekt hinzu, das dann den Ergativ erhält. Das Subjekt des '''intransitiven''' Verbs, das zuvor im Absolutiv war, bleibt in diesem Kasus und erscheint als Objekt. '''ABS=ABS, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 10 a. || ''k'ant'' || ''v-oed-u''
|-
| || Junge(V).ABS || V-gehen-PRS
|-
| || colspan='2' | ‘Der Junge geht.’
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b. || ''as'' || ''k'ant'' || ''v-ox-'''ijt'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || Junge(V).ABS || V-gehen-CAUS-PRS ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | ‘Ich lasse den Jungen gehen / ich veranlasse den Jungen zu gehen’ ||
|-
|}
Bei den '''transitiven''' Verben wird das Subjekt, das zuvor im Ergativ war, zum Allativ und erscheint als indirektes Objekt. Ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ wird eingefügt. Das Patiens bleibt das direkte Objekt. '''ERG→ALL, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 12 a.||''bier-as''||''shura''||''mol-u''
|-
| || Kind-ERG || Milch.ABS || trinken-PRS
|-
| ||colspan="3"| ‘Das Kind trinkt Milch’
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b.|| ''as'' || ''bier-aga'' || ''shura'' || ''mol-'''ijt'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || Kind-ALL || Milch.ABS || trinken-CAUS-PRS
|-
| ||colspan="4" |‘Ich lasse das Kind Milch trinken’
|-
|}
Bei '''inversen''' Verben, bei denen das Subjekt immer im Dativ verwendet wird, wird ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ eingefügt und das Dativsubjekt behält seinen Kasus, erscheint aber als indirektes Objekt. '''DAT=DAT, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 13 a.||''hwuna''||''surt''||''go''
|-
| || 2s.DAT||Bild.ABS||sehen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='3' |‘Du siehst ein Bild’ ||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b.||''as ''||''hwuna''||''surt''||''go-'''it'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || 2s.DAT || Bild.ABS || sehen-CAUS-PRS
|-
| ||colspan='4'| ‘Ich zeige dir ein Bild/ich lasse dich ein Bild sehen‘ ||
|}

=== Kausativ mit Suffix –''duo'' ===
Das Suffix -'''duo''' bedeutet ''etwas machen'', ''tun'', ''schaffen''. Dieses Suffix wird verwendet, wenn das eingefügte Agens im Ergativ auf das Patiens im Absolutiv direkt physisch einwirkt. Diese Form zeigt, dass der Agens direkt auf das Objekt einwirkt. Bei intransitiven Verben wird ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ hinzugefügt und das vorherige Subjekt wird zum direkten Objekt und behält seinen Absolutivkasus. Das intransitive Verb bekommt dadurch einen transitiven Status. Bei transitiven Verben wird ebenfalls ein neues Argument im Ergativ hinzugefügt und das vorherige Subjekt erhält den Dativ.
{|
|-
| width=45px aligh='right' | 14||''Zara-s'' ||''san''||''korta''||''laza-'''b-o'''''||
|-
| || Zara-ERG || mein || Kopf(B).ABS || schmerzen-B-machen-PRS ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'| ‘Zara verursacht, dass mein Kopf schmerzt’ || (intransitiv → transitiv)
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px aligh='right' | 15||''ahw'' ||''bierana''||''shura''||''mola-'''j-o'''''||
|-
| || 2s.ERG || Kind.DAT || Milch.ABS || trinken-J-machen ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Du veranlasst das Kind Milch zu trinken.’|| (transitiv → ditransitiv)
|}

=== Direkter/indirekter Kausativ ===
Man unterscheidet zwischen direktem und indirektem Kausativ im Tschetschenischen. Man verwendet den direkten Kausativ, wenn der Verursacher eine direkte physische Wirkung auf das frühere Subjekt der Handlung ausübt. Im Beispiel 16 a. lässt Zaras physikalische Aktivität das Kind den Brei essen, z.B.: Das Kind ist nicht in der Lage selbst den Brei zu essen und Zara füttert es mit dem Löffel. Beim direkten Kausativ steht das indirekte Objekt (das frühere Subjekt der Handlung) im Dativ und das direkte Objekt im Absolutiv.

Der indirekte Kausativ wird verwendet, wenn das Subjekt eine Wirkung auf das indirekte Objekt (das frühere Subjekt der Handlung) verursacht, aber die Wirkung nicht vom Subjekt direkt ausgeführt wird. Das direkte Objekt behält seinen Absolutivkasus und das indirekte Objekt erscheint jetzt im Allativ.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |16 a. ||''Zaras''||''berana''||''xudar''||'' da'a'''-do'''''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||Kind.DAT||Brei.ABS||essen-CAUS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|'Zara füttert das Kind mit dem Brei'|| (→ direkter Kausativ)
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |b.||''Zaras''||''beraga''||''xudar''||''do'a-'''itu'''''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||Kind.ALL||Brei.ABS||essen-CAUS.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='5'|'Zara lässt das Kind Brei essen'|| (→ indirekter Kausativ)
|-
|}

=== Doppel-Kausativ ===
Aus beiden kausativen Suffixen '''''-duo''''' und '''''-(i)t''''' kann man den Doppel-Kausativ bilden. Doppel-Kausative sind unbeschränkt, sie sind sowohl für transitive als auch intransitive Verben verwendbar. Wenn die zwei Suffixe zusammen auftreten, kommt das '''''-(i)t''''' immer nach dem Suffix '''''-duo'''''. Die Bedeutung ist ‘X veranlasst Y, Z zu veranlassen, V zu tun’. ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ wird hinzugefügt und ein neues Kausatum im Allativ oder im Dativ. Das ehemalige Subjekt des transitiven Verbs erhält den Dativ. '''ERG → DAT, + ERG, + ALL'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|17.|| ''Nana-s''||''bier-ana''||''hwoe-ga''||''shura''||''mola-'''j-a-it'''-u''|| (mit transitivem Verb)
|-
| || Mutter.ERG||Kind-DAT||2s-ALL || Milch(J).ABS || trinken-J-machen-CAUS-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='5'|Die Mutter veranlasst dich, das Kind zu veranlassen, Milch zu trinken.||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|18.||''cuo''||''san''||''korta''||laza-'''b-a-it''''|| (mit intransitivem Verb)
|-
| ||3s.ERG || 1s.GEN || Kopf(B).ABS || schmerzen-B-machen-CAUS ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Er veranlasst (etwas/jmdn.), meinen Kopf zu veranlassen zu schmerzen’||
|
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|19.||''as''||''hwo''||''cunna''||''j-eza-'''j-ol-ijt'''-u''|| (mit inversem Verb)
|-
| ||1s.ERG||2s.(J)ABS|| 3s.DAT||J-gefallen-J-machen-CAUS-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich veranlasse dich zu verursachen, dass du ihm gefällst.’||
|-
|}

=== Reflexiv ===
Das Possessivreflexiv ist einfach die Genitivform des Reflexivpronomens. Es gibt keinen Unterschied im syntaktischen Verhalten bei Possessor- oder Aktantenreflexivierung. Beide werden fast ausnahmslos vom Subjekt kontrolliert, unabhängig von dessen Kasus. Die folgenden Beispiele haben Ergativsubjekte von transitiven Verben.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 20. || ''Zaras'' || '''''sheina''''' || ''koch''||''ecna''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||3s.REFL.DAT||Kleid.ABS|| kaufen.PRF||
|-
| || colspan='4'|Zara hat sich ein Kleid gekauft.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 21. || ''Zaras'' || '''''shie''''' ||''jowana''|| ''koch''||''ecna''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||3s.REFL.GEN||Tochter.DAT||Kleid.ABS|| kaufen.PRF||
|-
| || colspan='5'|Zara hat ihrer Tochter ein Kleid gekauft.'||
|-
|}

=== Reziprok ===
Das Pronomen '''vovsha''', was übersetzt ''einander'' bedeutet, verhält sich syntaktisch wie ein Pronomen und wird wie ein Nomen dekliniert.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|22.||''ysh''||'' '''vovshashca'''''|| ''ca''||''mega''||
|-
| ||3p.ABS|| einander.INSTR|| NEG|| mögen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4' |'Sie können einander nicht ertragen.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|23.||'''''vovshashna'''''||''xazxietar ''||''da''||
|-
| ||einander.DAT||Gefallen.ABS||tun||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'einander einen Gefallen tun'||
|-
|}
Es gibt eine reguläre Kasusform von diesem Pronomen '''vovshax''', was ebenfalls ''auseinander'' oder ''einander'' bedeutet und wird als Präfix am Verb markiert. Die Kasusform von diesem Pronomen ist Lativ.
{|
|width=45px align='right'|24.||'''''vovshax'''-daaqa''||
|-
| ||auseinander-nehmen||
|-
|}
{|
|width=45px align='right'|25.||'''''vovshax'''-qieta''||
|-
| ||einander treffen||
|-
|}

=== Ambitransitiv ===
Es gibt eine Gruppe von Verben, die sowohl transitiv als auch intransitiv verwendbar sind, ohne dass eine morphologische Veränderung stattfindet. Diese Gruppe von Verben nennt man [[Ambitransitiv|ambitransitive Verben]]. Alle im Tschetschenischen vorkommenden ambitransitiven Verben zeigen eine Zustandsveränderung des Patiens an.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|26 a.||''as''||''kad''||''xi-x''||''b-uz-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ERG|| Tasse(B).ABS ||Wasser-LAT||B-füllen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich fülle die Tasse mit Wasser’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| b.||'' kad''||''(xi-x)''||''b-uz-u''||
|-
| ||Tasse(B).ABS||(Wasser.LAT)||B-füllen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|‘Die Tasse füllt sich (mit Wasser)’||
|-
|}

=== Antipassiv===
Im Tschetschenischen gibt es keine speziellen Verbformen, Suffixe oder Präfixe, die antipassive Bedeutung ausdrücken. Die Antipassivbedeutung wird nur anhand des unterschiedlichen Kongruenzverhaltens deutlich. Im aktiven transitiven Satz kongruieren sowohl die Kopula wie auch das Hauptverb mit dem direkten Objekt (Bsp. 27 a.). Im antipassivischen Satz kongruiert die Kopula mit dem Subjekt, das Hauptverb aber weiterhin mit dem direkten Objekt. Das direkte Objekt kann dann weggelassen werden. In der Kaukasistik ist diese Konstruktion auch als "[[Doppelabsolutiv-Konstruktion]]" bekannt.

A → S (ERG→ABS)
P → Ø
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|27 a.||''as ('''d''')''||''kiexat''||'''''d'''-azdie-sh''||'''''d-u'''''||
|-
| ||1s.ERG||Brief(D).ABS||D-schreiben-CVBsim||D-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich schreibe einen Brief’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|b.||''suo ('''j''')''||'' (kiexat ('''d'''))''||'''''d'''-azde-sh''||'''''j'''-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ABS(J)|| (Brief(D).ABS|| D-schreiben-CVBsim||J-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich schreibe (einen Brief)’||
|-
|}

Bei Verben mit Dativsubjekt erhält dieses Subjekt im Antipassiv ebenfalls den Absolutiv, das direkte Objekt kann jedoch nicht weggelassen werden. Das Kongruenzverhalten ist bei beiden Verbarten gleich.

{|
|-
|width=45 align='right' |28 a.||''souna''||'' iza ('''v''')''||'''v'''-iez-a''||
|-
| ||1s.DAT||3s.ABS(V)|| V-lieben/brauchen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|‘Ich liebe/brauche ihn’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|b.||''suo ('''j''')''||''iz ('''v''')''||'''''v'''-ieza-sh''||'''''j'''-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ABS(J)|| 3s.ABS(V)||V-lieben-CVBsim||J-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich liebe/brauche ihn’||
|-
|}

=== Inchoativ ===
Die grundlegende Bedeutung des Suffixes '''''-dala''''' ist der Anfang der Handlung. Die Form des Suffix ist durch das Tempus und den Aspekt bestimmt und enthält auch ein Kongruenzmorphem. Im Präsens wird es zum Ausdrücken der Handlung, die gerade anfängt, verwendet. Im Perfekt bedeutet es die Abgeschlossenheit der Handlung.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| 29.||''san ''||''korta ''||''laza-'''boal'''''
|-
| ||1s.GEN||Kopf.ABS||schmerzen-anfangen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Mein Kopf fängt an zu schmerzen.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| 30.||''san ''||''korta ''||''laza-'''bial'''-ar''
|-
| ||1s.GEN||Kopf.ABS||schmerzen-anfangen-WIT.PST||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Mein Kopf hat angefangen zu schmerzen'||
|-
|}

== Literatur ==
*Nichols, J. (1994) 'Chechen' in ''The indigenous languages of the caucasus'' Vol.4, Ed. Rieks Smeets; New York
*Nichols, J. (1982) ‘Ingush transitivisation and detransitivisation’ ''BLS'' 8:445-462
*Nichols, J.(1985) ‘Switch-reference causatives’ CLS 21:2 ''Papers from the Parasession on Causatives and Agentivity:'' 193-203
*Payne,Th.E. (2006) '''Exploring language structure: a student’s guide’'' 258-264 Cambridge University Press
* Rajabov, R. "[http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl28.pdf The double-absolutive construction in Tsez]"

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Nakh-Dagestanian]]

Sumerian

2013-02-04T19:37:30Z

MRiessler: other language

{{stub}}

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Sumerian
|Autonym =eme-ĝir, eme-gi
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Sumerian
|OLACname =Sumerian
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =
|Genus =[[Isolate]]
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =extinct
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =sux
|WALScode =
}}

'''Sumerian'''

===Other languages===
German: [[Sumerisch]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Sumerian

2013-02-04T19:26:08Z

MRiessler: new article

Sumerisch

2013-02-04T19:22:08Z

MRiessler: andere Sprache

===Link===
[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerische_Sprache Wikipedia (de)]

===Andere Sprachen===
Englisch: [[Sumerian]]

[[Category: De]]
[[Category: Single language]]

{{stub}}{{cats}}

Siwi

2013-02-04T19:19:51Z

MRiessler: cat

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Siwi
|Autonym =žlan n Isiwan
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Siwi
|OLACname =Siwi
|WALSname =Berber (Siwa)
|WALSLoc =29° 10′ 12.00″ N, 25° 30′ E
|Family =[[Afro-Asiatic]]
|Genus =[[Berber]]
|Countries =Egypt, Libya
|OfficialLg =not official
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =siz
|WALScode =bsi
|MPIExt1 =
}}

===Name===
"Siwi" is an [[Arabic]] [[nisba]] adjective from ''Sīwah'', the Arabic name of the main oasis where Siwi is spoken; the word is also used in Siwi. The Siwi name of the oasis and of its inhabitants is ''Isiwan'', and ''žlan n Isiwan'' means "speech of Siwa/the Siwis". Notwithstanding certain reports online, Siwis do not call their language ''tasiwit'', although speakers of other Berber languages have been known to use the term.

===Location===
Siwi is the main language of the oases of Siwa and Gara, in western Egypt. Emigration, mainly in search of work, has led to the presence of Siwis elsewhere in Egypt and in parts of Libya.

===Speakers===
The number of Siwi speakers may be estimated as about 15,000. The population of Siwa and Gara, according to the Egyptian census of 2006 ([http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pls/census/cnsest_a_sex_ama?LANG=1&lname=0&YY=2006&cod=33&gv= link]), was 17,675; of these, most are Siwi speakers. No estimate of the number of Arabic-speaking immigrants in town is available, but the western villages of Maraqi and Bahayeddin are mainly Arabic-speaking; excluding those villages would reduce the count to 15,886. The Ethnologue's (2005) estimate of 5,000 speakers in 1995 was undoubtedly too low.

===Dialects===
No published data indicates dialectal variation within Siwi.

===Classification===
:[[Afro-Asiatic]]
::[[Berber]]

===Validity of classification===

There is no doubt that Siwi is a Berber language, although it has undergone [[Arabic]] influence to a degree unusually heavy even for Berber. The earliest reported written observation of its similarity to other Berber languages was by the Egyptian geographer al-Maqrīzī (1364-1442), who remarked of Siwa in ''al-Mawā`ið̣ wal-i`tibār fī ðikr al-xiṭaṭ wal-'āθār'' (2002:238) that "its language is called Siwi, and is close to the language of (the large Berber tribe) Zanāta".

===Links===
Ongoing research on Siwi:
*[http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/research/siwi.php Christfried Naumann]
*[http://lameen.googlepages.com/ Lameen Souag]

Older wordlists:
*[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k85228r/f90.table Hornemann 1803]

==References==
* Maqrīzī. تقي الدين أحمد بن علي المقريزي. تحقيق: أيمن فؤاد سيد. 2002. ''المواعظ والاعتبار في ذكر الخطط والآثار. لندن: الفرقان.

===Works on the language===
* Basset, René. 1890. ''Le Dialecte de Syouah''. Paris: Publications de l'Ecole des Lettres d'Alger.
* [[Emile Laoust|Laoust, Emile]]. 1932. ''Siwa I: son parler''. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
* Leguil, Alphonse. 1986. “Notes sur le parler berbère de Siwa.” ''Bulletin des études africaines de l'Inalco'', vol. VI, no. 11, pp. 5-42; no. 12, pp. 97-124.
* [[Werner Vycichl|Vycichl, Werner]]. 1998. A Sketch of Siwi Berber. In Vycichl 2005. ''Berberstudien & A Sketch of Siwi Berber. Berber Studies Vol. 10.'' Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
* Walker, W. Seymour. 1921. ''The Siwi Language''. London.

==Other languages==
* Arabic [[سيوية]]
* French [[siwi (fr)]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Berber]]

Category:Berber

2013-02-04T19:19:26Z

MRiessler: new cat

[[Category:Afro-Asiatic]]

Rif Berber

2013-02-04T19:19:00Z

MRiessler: walscode,cat

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Rif Berber
|Autonym =Tamazight, Tarifiyt
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Tarifit
|OLACname =Tarifit
|WALSname =Berber (Rif)
|WALSLoc ={{GooglemapLink|Lat=34.5°N|Long=4°W}}
|Family =[[Afro-Asiatic]]
|Genus =[[Berber]]
|Countries =Morocco
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =rif
|WALScode =brf
|MPIExt1 =
}}

'''Rif Berber''' is an [[Afro-Asiatic]] language that is spoken in Morocco.

===Name===
The name consists of the modifier ''Rif'' and the head ''Berber''. The Rif is the name of a mountainous range in Northern Morocco, in part of which Rif Berber is spoken. The most generally used autonym is ''Tamazight'' (or ''Tmazight''), a term which is also used as an autonym in several other Berber languages. The term ''Tarifiyt'' (also spelled ''Tarifit'') is often used to disambiguate terminology. In regional usage, however, ''Tarifiyt'' is often only used for the dialects spoken west of the Oued Kert as opposed to the dialects spoken east of this river. The language of the Beni Iznasen, which is included in Rif Berber on linguistic grounds, is regarded locally as a variety which does not belong to Rif Berber at all.

===Dialects===
There is a large amount of dialectal variation in Rif Berber. The most western varieties - the so-called dialects of the [[Senhaja de Sraïr]] and [[Ghomara]] - are so different from the rest of Rif Berber that they should be regarded a different language (e.g. Kossmann 1999:31 excludes them from his "Zenatic" group, while Rif Berber proper is included). Even within Rif Berber proper, there exist important differences; this can easily be seen using the dialect atlas (Lafkioui 1997).

===Location===
Rif Berber is spoken in the north-eastern part of Morocco. The easternmost dialects which are usually included in this group are spoken by the Beni Iznasen north of the city of Oujda, and near the Algerian border. Rif Berber proper extends to the west until the region immediately west of Elhoceima. It reaches to the south until the plains. In the high mountains around Ketama and Targuist the varieties of the Senhaja de Sraïr are spoken, which may belong to a different linguistic group inside Berber. In the beginning of the 20th century there was still a small Rif Berber speaking immigrant community in the Algerian town of Vieil Arzew. As the language was moribund around 1910 (Biarnay 1911), the probability of its survival is very low. Sources claiming that Rif Berber is also spoken in Algeria, such as the Ethnologue, are simply wrong. There exist a few Berber varieties spoken across the Algerian border, such as the dialect of the [[Beni Snous]]. Despite many similarities to Rif Berber, these varieties are not included in Rif Berber.

===Speakers===
Based on census data of the number of inhabitants of the provinces where Rif Berber is spoken the number of speakers would add up to about one million. There are many Rif Berber speakers who migrated from their home region to other parts of Morocco and to Europe, esp. the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany (esp. Duisburg and Frankfurt am Main).

===Classification===
*[[Afro-Asiatic]]
:*[[Berber]]

===Validity of classification===
There is no doubt that Rif Berber belongs to the Berber language family.

===References===
*Kossmann, Maarten. 1999. ''Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berbère''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

===Works on the language===
*Biarnay, Samuel. 1911. ''Etude sur le dialecte des Bet't'ioua du Vieil-Arzeu''. Alger: Carbonel.
*Biarnay, Samuel. 1917. ''Etude sur les dialectes berbères du Rif''. Paris: Leroux.
*Cadi, Kaddour. 1987. ''Système verbal rifain. Forme et sens.'' Paris: Peeters.
*Colin, Georges Séraphin. 1929. "Le parler berbère des Gmara." ''Hespéris'' 9: 43-58.
*Kossmann, Maarten. 2000. ''Esquisse grammaticale du rifain oriental''. Paris: Peeters.
*Lafkioui, Mena. 2007. ''Atlas linguistique des variétés berbères du Rif''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
*Renisio, A. 1932. ''Etude sur les dialectes berbères des Beni Iznassen, du Rif et des Senhaja de Sraïr''. Paris: Leroux.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category: Berber]]

Siwi

2013-02-04T19:17:32Z

MRiessler: infobox

Rif Berber

2013-02-04T19:12:26Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Rif Berber
|Autonym =Tamazight, Tarifiyt
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Tarifit
|OLACname =Tarifit
|WALSname =Berber (Rif)
|WALSLoc ={{GooglemapLink|Lat=34.5°N|Long=4°W}}
|Family =[[Afro-Asiatic]]
|Genus =[[Berber]]
|Countries =Morocco
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =rif
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}

'''Rif Berber''' is an [[Afro-Asiatic]] language that is spoken in Morocco.

===Name===
The name consists of the modifier ''Rif'' and the head ''Berber''. The Rif is the name of a mountainous range in Northern Morocco, in part of which Rif Berber is spoken. The most generally used autonym is ''Tamazight'' (or ''Tmazight''), a term which is also used as an autonym in several other Berber languages. The term ''Tarifiyt'' (also spelled ''Tarifit'') is often used to disambiguate terminology. In regional usage, however, ''Tarifiyt'' is often only used for the dialects spoken west of the Oued Kert as opposed to the dialects spoken east of this river. The language of the Beni Iznasen, which is included in Rif Berber on linguistic grounds, is regarded locally as a variety which does not belong to Rif Berber at all.

===Dialects===
There is a large amount of dialectal variation in Rif Berber. The most western varieties - the so-called dialects of the [[Senhaja de Sraïr]] and [[Ghomara]] - are so different from the rest of Rif Berber that they should be regarded a different language (e.g. Kossmann 1999:31 excludes them from his "Zenatic" group, while Rif Berber proper is included). Even within Rif Berber proper, there exist important differences; this can easily be seen using the dialect atlas (Lafkioui 1997).

===Location===
Rif Berber is spoken in the north-eastern part of Morocco. The easternmost dialects which are usually included in this group are spoken by the Beni Iznasen north of the city of Oujda, and near the Algerian border. Rif Berber proper extends to the west until the region immediately west of Elhoceima. It reaches to the south until the plains. In the high mountains around Ketama and Targuist the varieties of the Senhaja de Sraïr are spoken, which may belong to a different linguistic group inside Berber. In the beginning of the 20th century there was still a small Rif Berber speaking immigrant community in the Algerian town of Vieil Arzew. As the language was moribund around 1910 (Biarnay 1911), the probability of its survival is very low. Sources claiming that Rif Berber is also spoken in Algeria, such as the Ethnologue, are simply wrong. There exist a few Berber varieties spoken across the Algerian border, such as the dialect of the [[Beni Snous]]. Despite many similarities to Rif Berber, these varieties are not included in Rif Berber.

===Speakers===
Based on census data of the number of inhabitants of the provinces where Rif Berber is spoken the number of speakers would add up to about one million. There are many Rif Berber speakers who migrated from their home region to other parts of Morocco and to Europe, esp. the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany (esp. Duisburg and Frankfurt am Main).

===Classification===
*[[Afro-Asiatic]]
:*[[Berber]]

===Validity of classification===
There is no doubt that Rif Berber belongs to the Berber language family.

===References===
*Kossmann, Maarten. 1999. ''Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berbère''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

===Works on the language===
*Biarnay, Samuel. 1911. ''Etude sur le dialecte des Bet't'ioua du Vieil-Arzeu''. Alger: Carbonel.
*Biarnay, Samuel. 1917. ''Etude sur les dialectes berbères du Rif''. Paris: Leroux.
*Cadi, Kaddour. 1987. ''Système verbal rifain. Forme et sens.'' Paris: Peeters.
*Colin, Georges Séraphin. 1929. "Le parler berbère des Gmara." ''Hespéris'' 9: 43-58.
*Kossmann, Maarten. 2000. ''Esquisse grammaticale du rifain oriental''. Paris: Peeters.
*Lafkioui, Mena. 2007. ''Atlas linguistique des variétés berbères du Rif''. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
*Renisio, A. 1932. ''Etude sur les dialectes berbères des Beni Iznassen, du Rif et des Senhaja de Sraïr''. Paris: Leroux.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category: Afro-Asiatic]]

Template:InfoboxLanguage

2013-02-04T19:06:00Z

MRiessler: more explanations

<onlyinclude><div style="float: right; clear: right;">
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:330px; border:1px solid #ccc; margin-left:1em; border-collapse:collapse;" rules="all"
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7; font-size:120%;" | {{{Language}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | Autoglottonym:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | {{{Autonym}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | Pronunciation:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [{{{Pronunciation}}}]
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | [[Ethnologue]] name:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code={{{ISO3}}} {{{Ethn15name}}}]
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | [[OLAC]] name:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [http://www.language-archives.org/language/{{{ISO3}}} {{{OLACname}}}]
|-
{{#if: {{{WALScode|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} [[WALS]] name:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_{{{WALScode}}} {{{WALSname}}}]
}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Location point:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{WALSLoc}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Genealogy
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Family:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Family}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Genus:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Genus}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Speakers
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Country:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Countries}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Official in:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{OfficialLg}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Speakers:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Speakers}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Writing system:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{WritingSyst}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Codes
|-
{{#if: {{{ISO1|}}} |
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [[ISO 639]]-1:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO1}}}
}}
|-
{{#if: {{{ISO2B|}}} |
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [[ISO 639]]-2:
{{!}} width="33%" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO2B}}}
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO2T}}}
}}
|-
| style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [[ISO 639]]-3:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | {{{ISO3}}}
|-
{{#if: {{{WALScode|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} [[WALS]]:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{WALScode}}}
}}
|-
{{#if: {{{MPIExt1|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} MPIExt1:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{MPIExt1}}}
}}
|}
</div></onlyinclude>

The '''Template:InfoboxLanguage''' is used in [[Glottopedia:Language articles|language articles]] to display details about single languages as a right-side infobox. It can be stacked with other infoboxes.

== Usage ==
Copy the following code into the article.
<pre>
{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =
|OLACname =
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =
|Genus =
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}
</pre>

Fill out the values like in the explanations below.

{| valign="top" style="border-width:0px; border-collapse:collapse; padding:2px;"
|-
| colspan="3" | <nowiki>{{</nowiki>InfoboxLanguage
|-
| width="15%" | | Language|| width="20px" | = || Name of language (defaults to page name)
|-
|| Autonym|| = ||
|-
|| Pronunciation|| = || Pronunciation of the autoglottonym (in [[IPA]])
|-
|| Ethn15name|| = || Name of the language used by [[Ethnologue]]
|-
|| OLACname|| = || Name of the language used by [[OLAC]]
|-
|| WALSname|| = || Name of the language used by [[WALS]]
|-
|| WALSLoc|| = || Language coordinates used, see below
|-
|| Family|| = || Highest genealogical unit to which the language belongs
|-
|| Genus|| = || Lowest genealogical unit to which the language belongs
|-
|| Countries|| = || Country or countries where the language is spoken
|-
|| OfficialLg|| = || Country or countries where the language has official status
|-
|| Speakers|| = || Number of speakers
|-
|| WritingSyst|| = || Writing system
|-
|| ISO|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-1
|-
|| ISO2B|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-2/B
|-
|| ISO2T|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-2/T
|-
|| ISO3|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-3
|-
|| WALScode|| = || Language code used by [[WALS]]
|-
|| MPIExt1|| = ||
|-
| colspan="3" | <nowiki>}}</nowiki>
|}

==Examples==

===WALSloc===
For languages included in [[WALS]] you can lookup coordinates there. If you write the coordinates like in the following example, a link to GoogleMaps is included automatically.
<pre>
|WALSLoc ={{GooglemapLink|Lat=43°N|Long=44°E}}
</pre>

<noinclude>
[[Category:Template|InfoboxLanguage]]
</noinclude>

Kildin Saami

2013-02-04T18:51:32Z

MRiessler: infobox, formatting of links

{{InfoboxLanguage|
|Language=Kildin Saami
|Autonym= (кӣллт) са̄мь кӣлл / (kīllt) sāmʼ kīll
|Pronunciation=[(kiːlːˠt) saːmʲ kːlːˠ]
|OLACname=Kildin Sami
|WALSname=Saami (Kildin)
|Ethn15name=Saami, Kildin
|Countries= Russian Federation
|WALSLoc= 37dE 67dN
|Family= [[Uralic]]
|Genus= [[Peninsula Eastern Saamic]]
|OfficialLg= not official
|Speakers=100–800
|WritingSyst=[[Cyrillic]]
|ISO2B=smi
|ISO2T=
|ISO3=sjd
|WALScode=sik
}}

'''Kildin Saami''' is a seriously endangered [[Eastern Saamic]] ([[Uralic]]) language spoken in the Russian Federation.

===Name===
The name ''Kildin'' is borrowed from Russian ''kilʼdin-'', the name for
an island on the Barents Sea coast close to present-day Murmansk. The [[Russian]] name of the island goes back to the Kildin Saami toponym ''kīllt'', which originally referred only to one rather peripheral [[dialect]] of this language.

===Location===
Kildin Saami is spoken on the Kola peninsula in northwesternmost Russia.

===Speakers===
The number of active fluent speakers is estimated at around 100 (2011);<ref>Scheller 2011</ref> the overall number of speakers goes perhaps up to 800.

===Dialects===
* Arsjogk
* Kīllt
* Koardegk
* Lejjavvʼr (†)
* Lujavvʼr
* Māziell`k (†)

===Classification===
:[[Uralic]]
::[[Finno-Ugric]]
:::[[Finno-Permic]]
::::[[Finno-Saamic]]
:::::[[Saamic]]
::::::[[Eastern Saamic]]
:::::::[[Peninsula Eastern Saamic]]

===Works on the language===
*Blokland, Rogier and [[Michael Rießler]]. 2011. Saami-Russian-[[Komi]] contacts on the Kola Peninsula. ''Language contact in times of globalization'', ed. by Cornelius Hasselblatt, Peter Houtzagers and Remco van Pareren. Amsterdam: Rodopi. 5–26.
*[[Georgij_Martynovič_Kert|Kert, Georgij M.]] 1971. ''Saamskij jazyk''. Leningrad: Nauka.
*Scheller, Elisabeth. 2011. The Sámi language situation in Russia. ''Ethnic and linguistic context of identity'', ed. by Riho Grünthal and Magdolna Kovács. Helsinki: SUS. 79–96.

===References===
<references/>

===Links and resources===
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kildin_Sami_language 'Kildin Saami'] in Wikipedia
*[http://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/sjd/Кӣллт_са̄мь_кӣлл 'Кӣллт_са̄мь_кӣлл'] in the Kildin Saami Wikimedia Incubator
*[http://www.galoes.org/grammars/sjd Kildin Saami grammar] in [[Galoes]]
*[http://omnibus.uni-freiburg.de/~mr5496/downl/KildinSketchVeryshort.pdf 'Kildin Saami: a brief introduction'] by Michael Rießler

===See also===
[[Glottopedia:Biographical_articles|Bibliographical articles]] on researchers of Kildin Saami
* [[Aleksandr Gavrilovič Endjukovskij|Endjukovskij, A. G. (de)]]
* [[Georgij Martynovič Kert|Kert, Georgij M. (de)]]

[[Glottopedia:Language_articles|Language articles]] on the other [[Kola Saami]] languages
* [[Akkalasaamisch|Akkalasaamisch (de)]]
* [[Skolt Saami]]
* [[Ter Saami]]

[[Glottopedia:Survey articles|Survey articles]] on Kildin Saami linguistics
*[[Kildin Saami phonology]]
*[[Kildin Saami morphology]]
*[[Kildin Saami syntax]]
*[[Kildin Saami orthography]]

===Other languages===
*German [[Kildinsaamisch]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Kola Saami]]
[[Category:Kildin Saami]]

Ossetic

2013-02-04T17:06:48Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Ossetic
|Autonym =иронау
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Osetin
|OLACname =Ossetian
|WALSname =Ossetic
|WALSLoc ={{GooglemapLink|Lat=43°N|Long=44°E}}
|Family =[[Indo-European]]
|Genus =[[Iranian]]
|Tree =<ctree>Ossetic</ctree>
|Countries =Georgia, Russian Federation
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO1 =os
|ISO2B =oss
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =oss
|WALScode =oss
|MPIExt1 =OSS
}}

===Name===
...

====Alternative names====
[[Ossetian]]

===Location===
Ossetic is spoken in Georgia and the Russian Federation (in the ''Region'' North Ossetia of Russia).

===Speakers===
...

===Dialects===
...

===Validity for classification===
...

===Alternative classifications===
...

===References===
...

===Works on the language===
* Abaev, Vasilij I. 1964. A Grammatical Sketch of Ossetic. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Center in Antropology, Folklore and Linguistics.
* Bagaev, N.K. 1965. Sovremennyj osetinskij jazyk. Volume 1: Fonetika i morfologija. Ordzhonikidze: [n.p.].
* Isaev, M.I. 1966. Osetinskij jazyk. In V.V. Vinogradov, ed., Jazyki narodov SSSR, vol. 1: Indoevropejskie jazyki, pp. 237-56. Moskva: Nauka.
* Isaev, M.I. 1987. Osetinskij, osnovy iranskogo jazykoznanija, novoiranskije jazyki. Moscow: Vostochnaja Gruppa, Nauka.
* Malherbe, Michael and S. Rosenberg. 1996. Les langages de l'humanité: une encyclopédie des 3000 langues parlées dans le monde. Paris: Laffont.
* Testen, David. 1997. Ossetic Phonology. In Alan S. Kaye, ed., Phonologies of Asia and Africa, part 2, pp. 707-731. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

===Other languages===
* French [[ossète]]
* Spanish [[oseto]]
* Russian [[осетинский]]
* German [[Ossetisch]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Iranian]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Template talk:InfoboxLanguage

2013-02-04T17:04:17Z

MRiessler: /* Questions */ new section

What about adding a category
*[[Orthography]], with the values e.g. [[Latin (script)]], [[Cyrillic]], [[Devanagari]] etc.
and a section on links and resources, like
*links to Wikipedia pages on the language
*OLAC resources
* and the like
Should I include these into to template? --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 10:37, 1 February 2013 (CET)

: Good idea. Feel free to do so. IMHO it'd be more appropriate to call the category [[Writing system]], however. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] ([[User talk:Wohlgemuth|talk]]) 13:38, 1 February 2013 (CET)

:: I will work further on it and merge the present template completely with [[:Template:InfoboxLanguageNew]]. I will later also check the pages using this template already. In the article on [[Kildin Saami]] it looks ok. But what is *[[MPIExt]]? It is not used any longer. --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 17:48, 2 February 2013 (CET)

== Questions ==

*what is ''MPIExt1''? --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 18:04, 4 February 2013 (CET)
*what is the ''CTREE-Plugin'', see <ctree>Ossetic</ctree> in [[Ossetic]] and [[:Ed:Forum#Protokoll_Trier_28.2.2009]]? --[[User:MRiessler|MRiessler]] ([[User talk:MRiessler|talk]]) 18:04, 4 February 2013 (CET)

Category:Iranian

2013-02-04T16:54:27Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Iranian'''.

[[Category:Indo-European]]

Category:Mixed language

2013-02-04T16:53:16Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Mixed languages'''.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language contact]]

Mixed language

2013-02-04T16:52:49Z

MRiessler: cat

In [[contact linguistics]], a '''mixed language''' is, loosely speaking, a language with multiple origins. While all languages include at least some [[loanword]]s or other instances of influence, usually most of the basic vocabulary and grammar derives from a single source; the term "mixed" is conventionally reserved for cases where this is not true. Different authors differ on its exact definition, and in particular on the inclusion of [[pidgin]]s and [[creole]]s.

For [[Peter Bakker|Bakker]] (1999:195), a mixed language is one that shows "positive genetic similarities, in significant numbers, with two different languages". This definition excludes most [[pidgin]]s and [[creole]]s, whose lexicon typically derives mainly from a single language and whose grammar cannot be traced to any single language.

For [[Sarah Thomason|Thomason]] (1988:8, 2001:158), a mixed language is one whose lexicon and grammar do not both derive primarily from the same source language. This definition includes [[pidgin]]s and [[creole]]s, since much of the grammar does not derive from the [[lexifier]]. Those languages which Bakker terms mixed, Thomason terms '''bilingual mixed languages'''.

Most known (bilingual) mixed languages (for example, [[Para-Romani]] varieties, [[Media Lengua]], [[Maa]]) feature a split between a vocabulary primarily derived from one language and a grammar primarily derived from another. However, in two known cases, [[Michif]] and [[Copper Island Aleut]], the grammar itself shows a large-scale split.

===Examples===

Prime examples of (bilingual) mixed languages include [[Michif]] (roughly speaking, [[Cree]] verbal system and [[French]] nominal system) and [[Media Lengua]] ([[Spanish]] vocabulary, [[Quechua]] grammar).

===References===

*Bakker, Peter. 1999. ''A Language of Our Own: The Genesis of Michif, the Mixed Cree-French Language of the Canadian Métis.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* ed. Bakker, Peter and Yaron Matras. 2003. ''The Mixed Language Debate: Theoretical and Empirical Advances''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
*Thomason, Sarah G. & Terence Kaufman. 1988. ''Language Contact, Creolisation, and Genetic Linguistics.'' Berkeley: University of California Press.
*Thomason, Sarah G. 2001. ''Language Contact: An Introduction.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

=== Other languages ===

* Arabic [[لغة هجينة]]
* French [[langue mixte]]
* German [[Mischsprache]]
* Japanese [[混成言語]]
* Russian [[смешанный язык]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Mixed language]]

Michif

2013-02-04T16:50:21Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Michif
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Michif
|OLACname =Michif
|WALSname =Michif
|WALSLoc =52° N, 100° 10′ W
|Family =
|Genus =
|Countries =Canada, USA
|OfficialLg =not official
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =crg
|WALScode =mcf
|MPIExt1 =
}}

===Location===
Michif is spoken in scattered Métis communities in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada and in North Dakota and Montana in the USA.

===Speakers===
The number of speakers is estimated at fewer than 1,000; it was probably double or triple this number around the turn of the century but never much higher (P. Bakker 1997) .

===Dialects===

===Classification===
:*[[Mixed]]

===Validity===
The reasons for classifying Michif as a mixed language are given by P. Bakker (1997).

===Links===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michif]

===References===
*Bakker, Peter. 1997. A language of our own: The genesis of Michif, the mixed Cree-French language of the Canadian Métis. New York, Oxford University Press.

===Works on the language===
*Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion, and Audreen Hourie. Metis legacy Michif culture, heritage, and folkways. Metis legacy series, v. 2. Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute, 2006. ISBN 0920915809
*Bakker, Peter: Spelling systems for Michif: an overview. In: La Lawng: Michif Peekishkwewin. The Heritage Language of the Canadian Metis. Vol 2: Language Theory. Barkwell, Lawrence (Ed.). Pemmican Publications/Manitoba Metis Federation Michif Language Program, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: pp. 11‑28, 2004. ISBN: 1-894717-28-7
*Bakker, Peter: The Michif language of the Metis. In: La Lawng: Michif Peekishkwewin. The Heritage Language of he Canadian Metis. Vol 2: Language Theory. Barkwell, Lawrence (Ed.). Pemmican Publications/Manitoba Metis Federation Michif Language Program, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: pp. 5‑9, 2004. ISBN: 1-894717-28-7
*Bakker, Peter: The verb in Michif. In: La Lawng: Michif Peekishkwewin. The Heritage Language of the Canadian Metis. Vol 2: Language Theory. Barkwell, Lawrence (Ed.). Pemmican Publications/Manitoba Metis Federation Michif Language Program, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: pp. 63‑80, 2004. ISBN: 1-894717-28-7 *
*Bakker, Peter: What is Michif? In: La Lawng: Michif Peekishkwewin. The Heritage Language of the Canadian Metis. Vol 1: Language Practice. Barkwell, Lawrence (Ed.). Pemmican Publications/Manitoba Metis Federation Michif Language Program, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: pp. 5‑7, 2004. ISBN: 1-894717-22-8
*Bakker, Peter; Barkwell, Lawrence: Storytelling and Mythology. In: La Lawng: Michif Peekishkwewin. The Heritage Language of the Canadian Metis. Vol 2: Language Theory. Barkwell, Lawrence (Ed.). Pemmican Publications/Manitoba Metis Federation Michif Language Program, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: pp. 83‑96, 2004. ISBN: 1-894717-28-7
*Bakker, Peter. 1997. A language of our own: The genesis of Michif, the mixed Cree-French language of the Canadian Métis. New York, Oxford University Press.
*Bakker,Peter and Robert Papen. 1997. Michif: A mixed language based on Cree and French. In S. Thomason (ed.) Contact languages: A wider perspective. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p. 295-363.
*Evans, Donna. 1982. "On coexistence and convergence of two phonological systems in Michif." Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session, 26, p. 158-173.
*Papen, Robert. 2003. "Michif: One phonology or two?" In Y. Chung, C. Gillon and R. Wokdak (eds) University of British Columbia Working Papers in Linguistics, Vol. 12, Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Language of the Americas, p. 47-58.
*Papen, Robert. 2004. "Michif spelling conventions: Proposal for a unified Michif writing system. In L. Barkwell (ed.) La lawng: Michif peekishkwewin. Winnipeg, MB: Pemmican Publications, p. 29-53.
*Papen, Robert. 2005. Le mitchif: langue franco-crie des Plaines. in A. Valdman, J. Auger & D. Piston-Hatlen (eds). Saint-François, QC: Presses de l'Université Laval, p. 327-347.
*Rosen, N. Demonstrative position in Michif. Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 48(1/2):39–69, 2003.
*Weaver, Deborah. 1982. Obviation in Michif. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session, 26, p. 174-262.
*Weaver, Deborah. 1983. "The effect of language change and death on obviation in Michif."In W. Cowan (ed.) Actes du Quatorzième Congrès des Algonquinistes. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, p. 261-268.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Mixed language]]

Lezgian

2013-02-04T16:46:11Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Lezgian
|Autonym =lezgi _'al
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Lezgi
|OLACname =Lezghian
|WALSname =Lezgian
|WALSLoc =6dE 52d30N
|Family =[[Nakh-Daghestanian]]
|Genus =[[Lezgic]]
|Countries =Russian Federation, Azerbaijan
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =40,000
|WritingSyst =[[Cyrillic]]
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =lez
|WALScode =lez
|MPIExt1 =
}}

===Name===
Pronunciation: ['lezgi_n]

Alternative names are
*[[Lezgi]]
*[[Lesgian]]

===Location===
Lezgian is spoken in Russia (southernmost part of Daghestan Republic) and northern Azerbaijan.

===Speakers===
The number of speakers is estimated at 400,000 [Reference needed]

===Dialects===
...

===Classification===
:[[Nakh-Daghestanian]]
::[[Lezgic]]

===Links===

[http://www.republika.pl/lezgi/chal.html Introduction to Lezgian]

===Works on the language===
*Haspelmath, Martin. 1993. ''A grammar of Lezgian.'' Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Nakh-Daghestanian]]

Category:Nakh-Daghestanian

2013-02-04T16:41:59Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Nakh-Daghestanian'''.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language family]]

Kwarandzyey

2013-02-04T16:40:46Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Kwarandzyey
|Autonym =Kwaṛa n dzyəy
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Korandje
|OLACname =Korandje
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =29° 24' 18 N, 3° 15' 38 W
|Family =[[Nilo-Saharan]]
|Genus =[[Songhay]]
|Countries =Egypt, Libya
|OfficialLg =not official
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =[[Latin (orthography)]]
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =kcy
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}

===Name===
'''Kwarandzyey''', or '''Korandje''', are renditions of ''Kwaṛa n dzyəy'' - hometown's speech. ''Kwaṛa'' is both a common noun meaning "hometown" or "home area" (Algerian Arabic ''blad'') and a proper noun referring to one of the oasis' four villages. In local dialectal Arabic, it is normally termed ''šəlħa'', a generic term for non-Arabic local languages more commonly applied to Berber.

===Location===
Kwarandzyey is the main language of three out of the four villages in the oasis of Tabelbala, located in western Algeria between Tindouf and Bechar, about one thousand kilometres north of Timbuktu. Emigration, usually for work, has led to significant Belbali communities outside the oasis, in particular in Tindouf and to a lesser extent Bechar.

===Speakers===
Approximately 3000 people - about half the oasis' population - speak Kwarandzyey ([http://lughat.blogspot.com/2007/12/climate-change-etymology-and-speaker.html link]). All but a few of their children are being brought up to speak Arabic as their first language.

===Dialects===
There are some minor lexical differences between the westernmost village and the other two.

===Classification===
:[[Nilo-Saharan]]
::[[Songhay]]

===Validity of classification===

Most basic vocabulary and structure is transparently derived from Songhay (as first noted in print by Cancel 1908), showing particularly strong similarities to other Northern Songhay varieties. However, Berber and to a lesser extent Arabic influence has strongly affected the structure, and accounts for most of the lexicon.

The membership of Songhay in Nilo-Saharan is controversial.

===Links===
Ongoing research on Kwarandzyey:
*[http://lameen.googlepages.com/ Lameen Souag]

===Works on the language===
* Cancel, Lt. 1908. “Etude sur le dialecte de Tabelbala”, ''Revue Africaine'' no. 270-271, pp. 302-247.
* Champault, Dominique. 1969. ''Une oasis du Sahara nord-occidental, Tabelbala''. Paris: CNRS.
* Kossmann, Maarten. 2004a. “Mood/Aspect/Negation Morphemes in Tabelbala Songhay (Korandje)”. ''Afrika und Übersee''. Band 87. pp. 131-153.
* Nicolai, Robert. 1981. ''Les dialectes du songhay. Contribution à l'étude des changements linguistiques''. Paris: SELAF.
* Tilmatine, Mohamed. 1991. “Tabelbala: Eine Songhay Sprachinsel in der algerischen Sahara”, in ed. Daniela Mendel and Ulrike Claudi, ''Ägypten im afro-orientalischen Kontext: Aufsatze zur Archeologie, Geschichte und Sprache eines unbegrenzten Raumes. Gedenkschrift Peter Behrens''. Köln: Universität zu Köln. pp. 377-397.
* Tilmatine, Mohamed. 1996. “Un parler berbèro-songhay du sud-ouest algérien (Tabelbala): Elements d’histoire et de linguistique”, ''[http://www.berberemultimedia.fr/etudes_docum/edb_14.pdf Etudes et Documents Berbères no. 14]'', pp. 163-198.

==Other languages==
* Arabic [[بلبالية]]
* French [[korandjé]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Songhay]]

Category:Songhay

2013-02-04T16:37:16Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Songhay'''.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language family]]

Kirghiz

2013-02-04T16:35:29Z

MRiessler: redir, because there is no need for a separate article with a spelling variant (notes on spelling are included there)

#REDIRECT[[Kirgiz]]

Kirgiz

2013-02-04T16:33:19Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Kirgiz
|Autonym =кыргыз тили
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Kyrgyz
|OLACname =Kirghiz
|WALSname =Kirghiz
|WALSLoc =42dN 75dE
|Family =[[Altaic]]
|Genus =[[Northern Turkic]]
|Countries =Kyrgyzstan
|OfficialLg =Kyrgyzstan
|Speakers =>1,500,000
|WritingSyst =[[Cyrillic]]
|ISO =ky
|ISO2B =kir
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =kir
|WALScode =kgz
|MPIExt1 =
}}

[this article is preliminary and needs to be corrected; it serves primarily illustrative purposes]

===Name===
Although the spelling ''Kirgiz'' is now generally preferred by Turkic linguists,<ref>see Kirchner 1998:542</ref> ''Kirghiz'' is is also sometimes used to indicate the fricative pronunciation of the onset of the second syllable.

Other alternative names are
*Kyrgyz
*Kara-Kirgiz

Note that the name ''Western Kirgiz'' has also been applied to [[Kazakh]].

===Location===
Kirgiz is spoken mostly in Kyrgyzstan, but also in neighboring areas of Russia, Tajikistan and China.

===Speakers===
According to the latest official figures, there are 1,452,354 million speakers in Kyrgyzstan,<ref>Berdullaev 2001</ref> and 233,321 speakers in Russia. No official figures are available for Tajikistan and China, but Comrie<ref>Comrie 1989:54</ref> gives an estimate of 80,000 for China.

===Dialects===
*[[Northern Kirghiz]]
*[[Southern Kirghiz]]

===Classification===
:*[[Altaic]]
::*[[Turkic]]
:::*'''[[Northern Turkic]]'''

===Validity===
The reasons for classifying Kirghiz as Northern Turkic are given by Baskakov.<ref>Bashakov 1956:??</ref>

===Alternative Classifications===
Kirgiz has alternatively been classified as belonging to the [[Aralo-Caspian]] group of [[Western Turkic]].<ref>see Dybo 2001</ref> The main reason for this is the similarities in the voice system.

===Links===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyz_language Wikipedia article]

===Works on the language===
*Hebert, Raymond J., and Nicholas Poppe. 1963. Kirghiz Manual. Indiana University Publications, Uralic and Altaic Series 33. Bloomington: Indiana University.
*Junusaliev, B.M. 1966. Kirgizskij Jazyk. In V.V. Vinogradov, ed., Jazyki Narodov SSSR, Volume 2: Tjurkskie Jazyki, pp. 482-504. Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka.
*Kirchner, Mark. 1998b. Kirgiz. In Lars Johanson and Éva Á. Csató, eds., The Turkic languages, pp. 344-356. London: Routledge.
*Oruzbaeva, B.O. 1997. Kirgizskij jazyk. In E.R. Tenishev, ed., Jazyki mira: Tjurkskie jazyki, pp. 286-298. Moscow: Indrik.

===References===
<references/>

===Other languages===
*French [[kirghiz (fr)]]
*German [[Kirgisisch]]
*Indonesian [[Bahasa Kirgiz]]
*Spanish [[kirguís]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Turkic]]

Kirgiz

2013-02-04T16:26:03Z

MRiessler: wiki:ref

{{InfoboxLanguage|
|Language=Kirgiz
|Autonym=кыргыз тили
|WALSname=[[Kirghiz]]
|Ethn15name=[[Kirghiz]]
|Countries= Kyrgyzstan
|WALSLoc= 42dN 75dE
|Family=[[Altaic]]
|Genus=[[Turkic]]
|OfficialLg=Kyrgyzstan
|ISO1=ky
|ISO2B=kir
|ISO2T=--
|Ethn15=KDO
|MPIExt1=KDOXXX
}}
[this article is preliminary and needs to be corrected; it serves primarily illustrative purposes]

===Name===
Although the spelling ''Kirgiz'' is now generally preferred by Turkic linguists,<ref>see Kirchner 1998:542</ref> ''Kirghiz'' is is also sometimes used to indicate the fricative pronunciation of the onset of the second syllable.

Other alternative names are
*Kyrgyz
*Kara-Kirgiz

Note that the name ''Western Kirgiz'' has also been applied to [[Kazakh]].

===Location===
Kirgiz is spoken mostly in Kyrgyzstan, but also in neighboring areas of Russia, Tajikistan and China.

===Speakers===
According to the latest official figures, there are 1,452,354 million speakers in Kyrgyzstan,<ref>Berdullaev 2001</ref> and 233,321 speakers in Russia. No official figures are available for Tajikistan and China, but Comrie<ref>Comrie 1989:54</ref> gives an estimate of 80,000 for China.

===Dialects===
*[[Northern Kirghiz]]
*[[Southern Kirghiz]]

===Classification===
:*[[Altaic]]
::*[[Turkic]]
:::*'''[[Northern Turkic]]'''

===Validity===
The reasons for classifying Kirghiz as Northern Turkic are given by Baskakov.<ref>Bashakov 1956:??</ref>

===Alternative Classifications===
Kirgiz has alternatively been classified as belonging to the [[Aralo-Caspian]] group of [[Western Turkic]].<ref>see Dybo 2001</ref> The main reason for this is the similarities in the voice system.

===Links===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyz_language Wikipedia article]

===Works on the language===
*Hebert, Raymond J., and Nicholas Poppe. 1963. Kirghiz Manual. Indiana University Publications, Uralic and Altaic Series 33. Bloomington: Indiana University.
*Junusaliev, B.M. 1966. Kirgizskij Jazyk. In V.V. Vinogradov, ed., Jazyki Narodov SSSR, Volume 2: Tjurkskie Jazyki, pp. 482-504. Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka.
*Kirchner, Mark. 1998b. Kirgiz. In Lars Johanson and Éva Á. Csató, eds., The Turkic languages, pp. 344-356. London: Routledge.
*Oruzbaeva, B.O. 1997. Kirgizskij jazyk. In E.R. Tenishev, ed., Jazyki mira: Tjurkskie jazyki, pp. 286-298. Moscow: Indrik.

===References===
<references/>

===Other languages===
*French [[kirghiz (fr)]]
*German [[Kirgisisch]]
*Indonesian [[Bahasa Kirgiz]]
*Spanish [[kirguís]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Turkic]]

Kirgiz

2013-02-04T16:22:12Z

MRiessler: including notes on alternative spellings from Kirghiz

{{InfoboxLanguage|
|Language=Kirgiz
|Autonym=кыргыз тили
|WALSname=[[Kirghiz]]
|Ethn15name=[[Kirghiz]]
|Countries= Kyrgyzstan
|WALSLoc= 42dN 75dE
|Family=[[Altaic]]
|Genus=[[Turkic]]
|OfficialLg=Kyrgyzstan
|ISO1=ky
|ISO2B=kir
|ISO2T=--
|Ethn15=KDO
|MPIExt1=KDOXXX
}}
[this article is preliminary and needs to be corrected; it serves primarily illustrative purposes]

===Name===
Although the spelling ''Kirgiz'' is now generally preferred by Turkic linguists (see Kirchner 1998:542), ''Kirghiz'' is is also sometimes used to indicate the fricative pronunciation of the onset of the second syllable.

Other alternative names are
*Kyrgyz
*Kara-Kirgiz

Note that the name ''Western Kirgiz'' has also been applied to [[Kazakh]].

===Location===
Kirgiz is spoken mostly in Kyrgyzstan, but also in neighboring areas of Russia, Tajikistan and China.

===Speakers===
According to the latest official figures, there are 1,452,354 million speakers in Kyrgyzstan (Berdullaev 2001), and 233,321 speakers in Russia. No official figures are available for Tajikistan and China, but Comrie (1989:54) gives an estimate of 80,000 for China.

===Dialects===
*[[Northern Kirghiz]]
*[[Southern Kirghiz]]

===Classification===
:*[[Altaic]]
::*[[Turkic]]
:::*'''[[Northern Turkic]]'''

===Validity===
The reasons for classifying Kirghiz as Northern Turkic are given by Baskakov (1956:...).

===Alternative Classifications===
Kirgiz has alternatively been classified as belonging to the [[Aralo-Caspian]] group of [[Western Turkic]] (see Dybo 2001). The main reason for this is the similarities in the voice system.

===Links===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyz_language Wikipedia article]

===References===
*Berdullaev 2001. ...
*Comrie 1989. ''The languages of the Soviet Union.''
*Dybo, Anna. 2001. ...
*Kirchner, Mark. 1998b. Kirgiz. In Lars Johanson and Éva Á. Csató, eds., The Turkic languages, pp. 344-356. London: Routledge.

===Works on the language===
*Hebert, Raymond J., and Nicholas Poppe. 1963. Kirghiz Manual. Indiana University Publications, Uralic and Altaic Series 33. Bloomington: Indiana University.
*Junusaliev, B.M. 1966. Kirgizskij Jazyk. In V.V. Vinogradov, ed., Jazyki Narodov SSSR, Volume 2: Tjurkskie Jazyki, pp. 482-504. Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka.
*Oruzbaeva, B.O. 1997. Kirgizskij jazyk. In E.R. Tenishev, ed., Jazyki mira: Tjurkskie jazyki, pp. 286-298. Moscow: Indrik.

===Other languages===
*French [[kirghiz (fr)]]
*German [[Kirgisisch]]
*Indonesian [[Bahasa Kirgiz]]
*Spanish [[kirguís]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Turkic]]

Khoekhoe

2013-02-04T16:13:56Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Khoekhoe
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Nama
|OLACname =Nama
|WALSname =Khoekhoe
|WALSLoc =18dE 25d30S
|Family =[[Khoisan]]
|Genus =[[Central Khoisan]]
|Countries =Namibia, South Africa
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =30,000
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =naq
|WALScode =kho
|MPIExt1 =KHOEKH
}}

===Name===
The name '''Khoekhoe''' is now generally preferred in Khoisan studies.

Alternative names are
* [[Nama]], [[Nama Hottentot]] (Hagman 1977)
* [[Namaqua]]
* [[Hottentot]]
* [[Khoekhoegowab]]

===Location===
Khoekhoe is spoken throughout Namibia, except in the most northern part of the country, and in the Northern Cape province of South Africa.

===Speakers===
There are about 30,000 speakers. They belong to two distinct groups: (i) The Namas in the area to the south of Windhoek, (ii) the Damaras (or Bergdamas) in the area to the north of Windhoek (Hagman 1977:1).

Most Khoekhoe speakers also speak Afrikaans as a second language, and some also speak [[English]], or [[Herero]] (Hagman 1977:1).

===Dialects===
...

===Classification===
*[[Khoisan]]
:*[[Central Khoisan]]

===Validity of classification===
...

===Works on the language===
*Beach, Douglas M. 1938. The phonetics of the Hottentot language. Cambridge: Heffer.

*Haacke, Wilfrid. 1976. A Nama grammar: the noun-phrase. MA thesis. University of Cape Town.

*Haacke, Wilfrid H. G. 1977. The so-called "personal pronoun" in Nama. In Traill, Anthony, ed., Khoisan linguistic studies 3, 43-62. Communications 6. Johannesburg: African Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand.

*Haacke, Wilfrid. 1978. Subject deposition in Nama. MA thesis. University of Essex. Colchester (UK).

*Haacke, Wilfrid. 1992. Compound noun phrases in Nama. In Derek F. Gowlett, ed., African linguistic contributions (Festschrift Ernst Westphal), 189-194. Pretoria: Via Afrika.

*Haacke, Wilfrid. 1992. Dislocated noun phrases in Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara): further evidence for the sentential hypothesis. Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere, 29, 149-162.

*Haacke, Wilfrid. 1995. Instances of incorporation and compounding in Khoekhoegowab (Nama/Damara). In Anthony Traill, Rainer Vossen and Marguerite Anne Megan Biesele, eds., The complete linguist: papers in memory of Patrick J. Dickens, 339-361. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.

*Haacke, Wilfrid, Eliphas Eiseb and Levi Namaseb. 1997. Internal and external relations of Khoekhoe dialects: a preliminary survey. In Wilfrid Haacke & Edward D. Elderkin, eds., Namibian languages: reports and papers, 125-209. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag for the University of Namibia.

*[[Haacke, Wilfrid]]. 1999. The tonology of Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara). Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung/Research in Khoisan studies, Bd 16. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.

*Haacke, Wilfrid H.G. & Eiseb, Eliphas (2002) ''A Khoekhoegowab dictionary with an English-Khoekhoegowab index''. Windhoek : Gamsberg Macmillan. ISBN 99916-0-401-4

*'''[[Hagman, Roy S.]] 1977. ''Nama Hottentot grammar.'' Bloomington: Indiana University.'''

*[[Tindall, Henry]]. 1857. ''A grammar and vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot language.'' Cape Town: Pike.

===Other languages===
*German [[Khoekhoe (de)]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Khoe]]

Irish

2013-02-04T16:05:59Z

MRiessler: more infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Irish
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Gaelic, Irish
|OLACname =Irish
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =[[Indo-European]]
|Genus =
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =ga
|ISO2B =gle
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =gle
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}

'''Irish''' is a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken in Ireland. It is an official language of the Republic of Ireland and the European Union, and has official recognition in Northern Ireland. It is a required subject for most schoolchildren in the Republic of Ireland, but only a small minority of the country’s population has native competence in the language, most Irish people being native speakers of [[English]].

==Phonology==
Irish phonology is characterized by the persistent contrast between [[velarization|velarized]] and [[palatalization|palatalized]] [[consonant]]s. Almost all consonants make a phonemic contrast between a velarized (or “broad”) and a palatalized (or “slender”) variant.

{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Consonant phonemes
! colspan="6" | [[Labial]]
! colspan="6" | [[Coronal]]
! colspan="4" | [[Dorsal]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | [[Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental|Labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiovelar|Labio- velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar]]
|-
!| [[Stop]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | pˠ pʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" | bˠ bʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | t̪ˠ   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | d̪ˠ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   tʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   dʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   c || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   ɟ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | k   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɡ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Fricative]]/ [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | fˠ fʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   vʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | w  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | sˠ   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   ʃ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   ç || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   j
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | x   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɣ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | h || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Nasal]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | mˠ mʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | n̪ˠ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   nʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   ɲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ŋ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Flap|Tap]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɾˠ ɾʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Lateral]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɫ̪  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   lʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|}

The [[vowel]]s are as follows:
{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!   || [[Front vowel|Front]] || [[Central vowel|Central]] || [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
| [[Close vowel|Close]] || iː ||   || uː
|-
| [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] || ɪ ||   || ʊ
|-
| [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] || eː ||   || oː
|-
| [[Mid vowel|Mid]] ||   || ə ||  
|-
| [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] || ɛ ||   || ɔ
|-
| [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan=3 align=center | a, aː
|}

[[Diphthong]]s:
*/əi/
*/əu/
*/iə/
*/uə/

Schwa is found only in [[stress|unstressed]] syllables.

In the northern (Ulster) and western (Connacht) dialects, stress regularly falls on the first syllable of the word, apart from a few adverbs like ''anseo'' ‘here’ and ''abhaile'' ‘home(ward)’ where it falls on the second syllable. In the southern (Munster) dialect, stress falls on the second syllable of a word if that syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong. If the second syllable contains a short vowel, but the third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, stress falls on the third syllable. If the second syllable contains the vowel /a/ followed by the consonant /x/, and both the first and third syllables contain short vowels, the stress falls on the second syllable. In all other cases (apart from the adverbs like ''anseo'' and ''abhaile'' mentioned above, and a few other exceptions) the stress falls on the first syllable.

In the northern dialect, long vowels appear only in stressed syllables; they are shortened in unstressed syllables, but do not take on the lax quality of the short vowel phonemes; thus a shortened /iː/ is still a tense [i], not a lax [ɪ].

==Morphology==
Irish is an inflecting language. [[Noun]]s, which are divided into masculine and feminine [[gender (grammar)|gender]]s, are declined for two [[number]]s (singular and plural) and four [[case]]s ([[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], and [[vocative]]; the nominative also has [[accusative]] function).

[[Verb]]s are conjugated for four [[person]]s (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and the so-called “autonomous”) and several tenses and moods (in the [[indicative]]: present, imperfect, preterite, future, conditional; in the [[subjunctive]]: present and imperfect; in the [[imperative]], present). Verbs also have a [[verbal noun]] which takes the place of an [[infinitive]] and a [[verbal adjective]] that functions similarly to a [[past participle]].

The “autonomous” form of a verb is used when the subject is undefined; it can be translated into English with ‘someone’ as the subject, as in ''léitear'' ‘someone reads’. It is often used in a [[passive]] function (e.g. ''aithristear an scéal'' ‘someone tells the story’ or ‘the story is told’), but it is not a passive in form as its [[argument]] is a direct object, not a subject.

Finite verb forms are either analytic or synthetic: analytic forms (apart from imperatives) require a following subject pronoun or noun (following because Irish word order is VSO), while with synthetic forms (which only appear in the 1st and 2nd persons, and not always then) a subject pronoun would be ungrammatical. For example, ‘you (singular) praise’ may be rendered as either ''molann tú'' (with the analytic form ''molann'' followed by the pronoun ''tú'') or ''molair'' (with the synthetic form of the 2nd person singular), but *''molair tú'' with the synthetic form followed by the pronoun is ungrammatical. It is thus not straightforward whether Irish can be classified as a ''[[pro]]'' drop language: after synthetic forms, ''pro'' drop is obligatory, and after analytic forms, ''pro'' drop is prohibited. Unlike the situation in languages like [[Spanish]] and [[Italian]], ''pro'' drop in Irish is never optional.

Like other Insular Celtic languages, Irish has inflected [[preposition]]s, i.e. prepositions fuse with object pronouns to form single words. For example, the preposition ''le'' ‘with’ has the following forms when it takes a pronominal object:
<center>
{|
!   || Singular || Plural
|-
| 1st || liom ‘with me’ || linn ‘with us’
|-
| 2nd || leat ‘with you’ || libh ‘with you’
|-
| 3rd || leis ‘with him’ léi ‘with her’ || leo ‘with them’
|}
</center>

==Syntax==
As mentioned above, Irish word order is [[VSO]], as in (1).

(1) Ólann Seán bainne.
drinks Seán milk
‘Seán drinks milk.’

[[Complement]]s follow the [[direct object]], as in (2).

(2) D’ól Seán an bainne sa chistín inné.
drank Séan the milk in-the kitchen yesterday
‘Séan drank the milk in the kitchen yesterday.’

However, object [[pronoun]]s come at the end of the sentence, following any complements, as in (3).

(3) D’ól Seán sa chistín inné é.
drank Seán in-the kitchen yesterday it
‘Seán drank it in the kitchen yesterday.’

The verb ''bí'' ‘to be’ (whose present indicative analytic form is ''tá'') cannot be used with a [[noun phrase]] as its predicate. Thus while (4) and (5) are both grammatical, (6) is not.

(4) Tá an bosca lán.
is the box full
‘The box is full.’

(5) Tá an bosca ar an tábla.
is the box on the table
‘The box is on the table.’

(6) * Tá Máire múinteoir.
is Máire teacher

Sentences whose predicate is a noun phrase contain no verb at all, but are introduced by the copulative [[particle]] ''is''. (Traditional grammars describe ''is'' as a verb, but theoretical syntacticians reject this analysis.) If the predicate is indefinite, it precedes the subject, and is separated from it by an agreement particle, as in (7).

(7) Is múinteoir í Máire.
COP teacher AGR Máire
‘Máire is a teacher.’

If the predicate is definite, it follows the subject; the subject is separated from the copulative particle by the agreement particle, as in (8).

(8) Is í Máire an múinteoir
COP AGR Máire the teacher
‘Máire is the teacher.’

==Initial mutations==
Like all [[Insular Celtic languages]], Irish is characterized by a set of initial mutations that appear in various morphosyntactic environments. Word-initial consonants are affected by either of two mutations, Lenition and Eclipsis, while word-initial vowels may acquire one of the prothetic consonants ''h'', ''n'', or ''t''.

===Lenition===
Lenition converts stops and /mˠ mʲ/ into fricatives/approximants, causes /fˠ fʲ/ to disappear, and causes coronals to lose their [[place of articulation]] (becoming either glottal or dorsal).

{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
! Radical || Lenited
|-
| pˠ pʲ || fˠ fʲ
|-
| bˠ bʲ || w vʲ
|-
| t̪ˠ tʲ || h
|-
| d̪ˠ dʲ || ɣ j
|-
| c k || ç x
|-
| ɟ ɡ || j ɣ
|-
| fˠ fʲ || (deleted)
|-
| sˠ ʃ || h
|-
| mˠ mʲ || w vʲ
|}

===Eclipsis===
Eclipsis makes voiceless stops and /fˠ fʲ/ voiced, and converts voiced stops into the corresponding nasals.
{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
! Radical || Eclipsed
|-
| pˠ pʲ || bˠ bʲ
|-
| bˠ bʲ || mˠ mʲ
|-
| t̪ˠ tʲ || d̪ˠ dʲ
|-
| d̪ˠ dʲ || n̪ˠ nʲ
|-
| c k || ɟ ɡ
|-
| ɟ ɡ || ɲ ŋ
|-
| fˠ fʲ || w vʲ
|}

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Celtic]]

Irish

2013-02-04T16:03:30Z

MRiessler: infobox (needs to be completed)

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Irish
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =
|OLACname =
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =
|Genus =
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}

'''Irish''' is a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken in Ireland. It is an official language of the Republic of Ireland and the European Union, and has official recognition in Northern Ireland. It is a required subject for most schoolchildren in the Republic of Ireland, but only a small minority of the country’s population has native competence in the language, most Irish people being native speakers of [[English]].

==Phonology==
Irish phonology is characterized by the persistent contrast between [[velarization|velarized]] and [[palatalization|palatalized]] [[consonant]]s. Almost all consonants make a phonemic contrast between a velarized (or “broad”) and a palatalized (or “slender”) variant.

{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Consonant phonemes
! colspan="6" | [[Labial]]
! colspan="6" | [[Coronal]]
! colspan="4" | [[Dorsal]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | [[Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental|Labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiovelar|Labio- velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar]]
|-
!| [[Stop]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | pˠ pʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" | bˠ bʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | t̪ˠ   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | d̪ˠ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   tʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   dʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   c || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   ɟ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | k   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɡ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Fricative]]/ [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | fˠ fʲ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   vʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | w  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | sˠ   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   ʃ || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   ç || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   j
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | x   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɣ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" | h || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Nasal]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | mˠ mʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | n̪ˠ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   nʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   ɲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ŋ  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Flap|Tap]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɾˠ ɾʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|-
!| [[Lateral]]
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" | ɫ̪  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |   lʲ
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
| style="border-right-width: 0;" |   || style="border-left-width: 0;" |  
|}

The [[vowel]]s are as follows:
{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!   || [[Front vowel|Front]] || [[Central vowel|Central]] || [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
| [[Close vowel|Close]] || iː ||   || uː
|-
| [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] || ɪ ||   || ʊ
|-
| [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] || eː ||   || oː
|-
| [[Mid vowel|Mid]] ||   || ə ||  
|-
| [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] || ɛ ||   || ɔ
|-
| [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan=3 align=center | a, aː
|}

[[Diphthong]]s:
*/əi/
*/əu/
*/iə/
*/uə/

Schwa is found only in [[stress|unstressed]] syllables.

In the northern (Ulster) and western (Connacht) dialects, stress regularly falls on the first syllable of the word, apart from a few adverbs like ''anseo'' ‘here’ and ''abhaile'' ‘home(ward)’ where it falls on the second syllable. In the southern (Munster) dialect, stress falls on the second syllable of a word if that syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong. If the second syllable contains a short vowel, but the third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, stress falls on the third syllable. If the second syllable contains the vowel /a/ followed by the consonant /x/, and both the first and third syllables contain short vowels, the stress falls on the second syllable. In all other cases (apart from the adverbs like ''anseo'' and ''abhaile'' mentioned above, and a few other exceptions) the stress falls on the first syllable.

In the northern dialect, long vowels appear only in stressed syllables; they are shortened in unstressed syllables, but do not take on the lax quality of the short vowel phonemes; thus a shortened /iː/ is still a tense [i], not a lax [ɪ].

==Morphology==
Irish is an inflecting language. [[Noun]]s, which are divided into masculine and feminine [[gender (grammar)|gender]]s, are declined for two [[number]]s (singular and plural) and four [[case]]s ([[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], and [[vocative]]; the nominative also has [[accusative]] function).

[[Verb]]s are conjugated for four [[person]]s (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and the so-called “autonomous”) and several tenses and moods (in the [[indicative]]: present, imperfect, preterite, future, conditional; in the [[subjunctive]]: present and imperfect; in the [[imperative]], present). Verbs also have a [[verbal noun]] which takes the place of an [[infinitive]] and a [[verbal adjective]] that functions similarly to a [[past participle]].

The “autonomous” form of a verb is used when the subject is undefined; it can be translated into English with ‘someone’ as the subject, as in ''léitear'' ‘someone reads’. It is often used in a [[passive]] function (e.g. ''aithristear an scéal'' ‘someone tells the story’ or ‘the story is told’), but it is not a passive in form as its [[argument]] is a direct object, not a subject.

Finite verb forms are either analytic or synthetic: analytic forms (apart from imperatives) require a following subject pronoun or noun (following because Irish word order is VSO), while with synthetic forms (which only appear in the 1st and 2nd persons, and not always then) a subject pronoun would be ungrammatical. For example, ‘you (singular) praise’ may be rendered as either ''molann tú'' (with the analytic form ''molann'' followed by the pronoun ''tú'') or ''molair'' (with the synthetic form of the 2nd person singular), but *''molair tú'' with the synthetic form followed by the pronoun is ungrammatical. It is thus not straightforward whether Irish can be classified as a ''[[pro]]'' drop language: after synthetic forms, ''pro'' drop is obligatory, and after analytic forms, ''pro'' drop is prohibited. Unlike the situation in languages like [[Spanish]] and [[Italian]], ''pro'' drop in Irish is never optional.

Like other Insular Celtic languages, Irish has inflected [[preposition]]s, i.e. prepositions fuse with object pronouns to form single words. For example, the preposition ''le'' ‘with’ has the following forms when it takes a pronominal object:
<center>
{|
!   || Singular || Plural
|-
| 1st || liom ‘with me’ || linn ‘with us’
|-
| 2nd || leat ‘with you’ || libh ‘with you’
|-
| 3rd || leis ‘with him’ léi ‘with her’ || leo ‘with them’
|}
</center>

==Syntax==
As mentioned above, Irish word order is [[VSO]], as in (1).

(1) Ólann Seán bainne.
drinks Seán milk
‘Seán drinks milk.’

[[Complement]]s follow the [[direct object]], as in (2).

(2) D’ól Seán an bainne sa chistín inné.
drank Séan the milk in-the kitchen yesterday
‘Séan drank the milk in the kitchen yesterday.’

However, object [[pronoun]]s come at the end of the sentence, following any complements, as in (3).

(3) D’ól Seán sa chistín inné é.
drank Seán in-the kitchen yesterday it
‘Seán drank it in the kitchen yesterday.’

The verb ''bí'' ‘to be’ (whose present indicative analytic form is ''tá'') cannot be used with a [[noun phrase]] as its predicate. Thus while (4) and (5) are both grammatical, (6) is not.

(4) Tá an bosca lán.
is the box full
‘The box is full.’

(5) Tá an bosca ar an tábla.
is the box on the table
‘The box is on the table.’

(6) * Tá Máire múinteoir.
is Máire teacher

Sentences whose predicate is a noun phrase contain no verb at all, but are introduced by the copulative [[particle]] ''is''. (Traditional grammars describe ''is'' as a verb, but theoretical syntacticians reject this analysis.) If the predicate is indefinite, it precedes the subject, and is separated from it by an agreement particle, as in (7).

(7) Is múinteoir í Máire.
COP teacher AGR Máire
‘Máire is a teacher.’

If the predicate is definite, it follows the subject; the subject is separated from the copulative particle by the agreement particle, as in (8).

(8) Is í Máire an múinteoir
COP AGR Máire the teacher
‘Máire is the teacher.’

==Initial mutations==
Like all [[Insular Celtic languages]], Irish is characterized by a set of initial mutations that appear in various morphosyntactic environments. Word-initial consonants are affected by either of two mutations, Lenition and Eclipsis, while word-initial vowels may acquire one of the prothetic consonants ''h'', ''n'', or ''t''.

===Lenition===
Lenition converts stops and /mˠ mʲ/ into fricatives/approximants, causes /fˠ fʲ/ to disappear, and causes coronals to lose their [[place of articulation]] (becoming either glottal or dorsal).

{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
! Radical || Lenited
|-
| pˠ pʲ || fˠ fʲ
|-
| bˠ bʲ || w vʲ
|-
| t̪ˠ tʲ || h
|-
| d̪ˠ dʲ || ɣ j
|-
| c k || ç x
|-
| ɟ ɡ || j ɣ
|-
| fˠ fʲ || (deleted)
|-
| sˠ ʃ || h
|-
| mˠ mʲ || w vʲ
|}

===Eclipsis===
Eclipsis makes voiceless stops and /fˠ fʲ/ voiced, and converts voiced stops into the corresponding nasals.
{| border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: center;"
! Radical || Eclipsed
|-
| pˠ pʲ || bˠ bʲ
|-
| bˠ bʲ || mˠ mʲ
|-
| t̪ˠ tʲ || d̪ˠ dʲ
|-
| d̪ˠ dʲ || n̪ˠ nʲ
|-
| c k || ɟ ɡ
|-
| ɟ ɡ || ɲ ŋ
|-
| fˠ fʲ || w vʲ
|}

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Celtic]]

Category:Vaupes-Japura

2013-02-04T16:01:49Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Vaupes-Japura'''.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language family]]

Hupda

2013-02-04T16:00:53Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{stub}}

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Hupda
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Hupda
|OLACname =Hupdë
|WALSname =Hupdë
|WALSLoc =-69,25,17
|Family =[[Vaupes-Japura]]
|Genus =[[Vaupes-Japura]]
|Countries =Brazil, Colombia
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =jup
|WALScode =hpd
|MPIExt1 =
}}

===Name===
...

Alternative names:
*[[Jupda]]
*[[Ubde-Nehern]]
*[[Macú]]
*[[Makú]]

===Location===
Hupda is spoken in ...

===Speakers===
...

===Dialects===
...

===Classification===
:[[Vaupes-Japura]]
::[[Vaupes-Japura]]

===Links===
...
===Works on the language===
*Erickson, Timothy and Catherine Groth Erickson. 1993. ''Vocabulario Jupda-Espanol-Portugues.'' Santafe de Bogota, Columbia: Asociación Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
*Giacone, Antonio. 1955. ''Pequena gramatica e dicionario Portugues Ubde-Nehern ou Macu.'' Amazonas, Brasil: Escola Salesiana de Artes Graficas.
*Huber, Randall Q., and Robert B. Reed. 1992. ''Comparative Vocabulary: Selected Words in Indigenous Languages of Colombia.'' Santafe de Bogota, Colombia: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
*Moore, Barbara J., and Gail L. Franklin. 1979. ''Breves noticias da lingua maku-hupda.'' Brasilia: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category: Vaupes-Japura]]

Gooniyandi

2013-02-04T15:54:28Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language=Gooniyandi
|Autonym=Gooniyandi
|Pronunciation =
|WALSname=Gooniyandi
|Ethn15name=Gooniyandi
|OLACname =Gooniyandi
|Countries= Australia
|WALSLoc= 18d20S 126d20E
|Family=[[Australian]]
|Genus=[[Bunuban]]
|OfficialLg=not official
|ISO1=
|ISO2B=
|ISO2T=
|ISO3=gni
|MPIExt1=GNIXXX
}}

===Name===
The name form ''Gooniyandi'' is now preferred because this is how the language name is written in the spelling used by the speakers (McGregor 1990:18).

Alternative names are
*[[Guniyan]], [[Gunian]]
*[[Kuniyanti]], [[Guniyandi]], [[Guniandi]]

===Location===
Gooniyandi is spoken near or in Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia.

===Speakers===
In the 1980s, there were about 100 speakers (McGregor 1990:23). The language is not being passed on to children, and is hardly used by the older speakers, who prefer [[Fitzroy Crossing Creole]] (Park 2006).

===Classification===
:*[[Australian]]
::*'''[[Bunuban]]'''

===References===
*[[McGregor, William]]. 1990. ''A Functional Grammar of Gooniyandi.'' Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
*Park, Kyung-An. 2006. (Personal observation)

===Works on the language===
*McGregor, William. 1990. ''A Functional Grammar of Gooniyandi.'' Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
*McGregor, William. 1992b. Clause Types in Gooniyandi. ''Language Sciences'' 14: 355-384.
*McGregor, William. 1999. Gooniyandi. In Nick Thieberger and William McGregor, eds., ''Macquarie Aboriginal Words: A Dictionary of Words from Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages'', pp. 193-213. New South Wales, Australia: The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Bunuban]]

Template:InfoboxLanguage

2013-02-04T15:53:43Z

MRiessler: adding MPIExt1

<onlyinclude><div style="float: right; clear: right;">
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:330px; border:1px solid #ccc; margin-left:1em; border-collapse:collapse;" rules="all"
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7; font-size:120%;" | {{{Language}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | Autoglottonym:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | {{{Autonym}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | Pronunciation:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | {{{Pronunciation}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | [[Ethnologue]] name:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code={{{ISO3}}} {{{Ethn15name}}}]
|-
| style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" | [[OLAC]] name:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [http://www.language-archives.org/language/{{{ISO3}}} {{{OLACname}}}]
|-
{{#if: {{{WALScode|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} [[WALS]] name:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_{{{WALScode}}} {{{WALSname}}}]
}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | [[WALS]] location:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{WALSLoc}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Genealogy
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Family:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Family}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Genus:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Genus}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Speakers
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Country:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Countries}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Official in:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{OfficialLg}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Speakers:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{Speakers}}}
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Writing system:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;"| {{{WritingSyst}}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#A9BEC7;border-color:#E8E8E8" | Codes
|-
{{#if: {{{ISO1|}}} |
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [[ISO 639]]-1:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO1}}}
}}
|-
{{#if: {{{ISO2B|}}} |
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} [[ISO 639]]-2:
{{!}} width="33%" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO2B}}}
{{!}} style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{ISO2T}}}
}}
|-
| style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | [[ISO 639]]-3:
| colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" | {{{ISO3}}}
|-
{{#if: {{{WALScode|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} [[WALS]]:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{WALScode}}}
}}
|-
{{#if: {{{MPIExt1|}}} |
{{!}} style="vertical-align:top; border-color:#E8E8E8" {{!}} MPIExt1:
{{!}} colspan="2" style="border-color:#E8E8E8;" {{!}} {{{MPIExt1}}}
}}
|}
</div></onlyinclude>

The '''Template:InfoboxLanguage''' is used in [[Glottopedia:Language articles|language articles]] to display details about single languages as a right-side infobox. It can be stacked with other infoboxes.

== Usage ==
Copy the following code into the article.
<pre>
{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =
|Autonym =
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =
|OLACname =
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =
|Genus =
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =
|WALScode =
|MPIExt1 =
}}
</pre>

Fill out the values like in the explanations below.

{| valign="top" style="border-width:0px; border-collapse:collapse; padding:2px;"
|-
| colspan="3" | <nowiki>{{</nowiki>InfoboxLanguage
|-
| width="15%" | | Language|| width="20px" | = || Name of language (defaults to page name)
|-
|| Autonym|| = ||
|-
|| Pronunciation|| = || Pronunciation of the autoglottonym (in [[IPA]])
|-
|| Ethn15name|| = || Name of the language used by [[Ethnologue]] (15)
|-
|| OLACname|| = || Name of the language used by [[OLAC]]
|-
|| WALSname|| = || Name of the language used by [[WALS]]
|-
|| WALSLoc|| = || Language coordinates used by [[WALS]]
|-
|| Family|| = || Highest genealogical unit to which the language belongs
|-
|| Genus|| = || Lowest genealogical unit to which the language belongs
|-
|| Countries|| = || Country or countries where the language is spoken
|-
|| OfficialLg|| = || Country or countries where the language has official status
|-
|| Speakers|| = || Number of speakers
|-
|| WritingSyst|| = || Writing system
|-
|| ISO|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-1
|-
|| ISO2B|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-2/B
|-
|| ISO2T|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-2/T
|-
|| ISO3|| = || Language code used by [[ISO 693]]-3
|-
|| WALScode|| = || Language code used by [[WALS]]
|-
|| MPIExt1|| = ||
|-
| colspan="3" | <nowiki>}}</nowiki>
|}

<noinclude>
[[Category:Template|InfoboxLanguage]]
</noinclude>

Dutch

2013-02-04T15:46:28Z

MRiessler: wiki:ref

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Dutch
|Autonym =Nederlands
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Dutch
|OLACname =Dutch
|WALSname =Dutch
|WALSLoc =6dE 52d30N
|Family =[[Indo-European]]
|Genus =[[Low-Saxon]]
|Countries =Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, part of Belgium, Suriname
|OfficialLg =Netherlands, part of Belgium, Suriname
|Speakers =21,400,000
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =nld
|WALScode =
}}

===Name===
Pronunciation: [dʌtʃ]

The name '''Dutch''' was apparently borrowed from Dutch ''Duits'', which now means 'German', but a few centuries ago was still used as autonym for Dutch as well. [Reference needed]

An alternative name is
*[[Netherlandic]]

===Location===
Dutch is spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium, as well as in the Netherlands Antilles and in Suriname.

===Speakers===
The number of speakers is estimated at 21,400,000 (2007).<ref>http://taalunieversum.org/taal/vragen/antwoord/4/</ref>

===Dialects===
...

===Classification===
:[[Indo-European]]
::[[Germanic]]
:::[[West Germanic]]
::::[[Low-Saxon]]

===Links===
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language Dutch in Wikipedia (English article)]
*[http://www.ru.nl/e-ans/ Official website of ANS]

===Works on the language===
*Haeseryn, W. & K. Romijn, G. Geerts, J. de Rooij & M.C. van den Toorn (eds.). 1997. ''Algemene Nederlandse spraakkunst (ANS)''. 2nd edition. Groningen: Martinus Nijhoff.

===References===
<references/>

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Germanic]]

Dutch

2013-02-04T15:44:13Z

MRiessler: infobox

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Dutch
|Autonym =Nederlands
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Dutch
|OLACname =Dutch
|WALSname =Dutch
|WALSLoc =6dE 52d30N
|Family =[[Indo-European]]
|Genus =[[Low-Saxon]]
|Countries =Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, part of Belgium, Suriname
|OfficialLg =Netherlands, part of Belgium, Suriname
|Speakers =21,400,000
|WritingSyst =
|ISO =
|ISO2B =
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =nld
|WALScode =
}}

===Name===
Pronunciation: [dʌtʃ]

The name '''Dutch''' was apparently borrowed from Dutch ''Duits'', which now means 'German', but a few centuries ago was still used as autonym for Dutch as well. [Reference needed]

An alternative name is
*[[Netherlandic]]

===Location===
Dutch is spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium, as well as in the Netherlands Antilles and in Suriname.

===Speakers===
The number of speakers is estimated at 21,400,000 (2007).
[Reference: http://taalunieversum.org/taal/vragen/antwoord/4/]

===Dialects===
...

===Classification===
:[[Indo-European]]
::[[Germanic]]
:::[[West Germanic]]
::::[[Low-Saxon]]

===Links===
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language Dutch in Wikipedia (English article)]
*[http://www.ru.nl/e-ans/ Official website of ANS]

===Works on the language===
*Haeseryn, W. & K. Romijn, G. Geerts, J. de Rooij & M.C. van den Toorn (eds.). 1997. ''Algemene Nederlandse spraakkunst (ANS)''. 2nd edition. Groningen: Martinus Nijhoff.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Germanic]]

Akkadian

2013-02-04T15:37:29Z

MRiessler: new article

{{stub}}

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language =Akkadian
|Autonym =lišānum akkadītum
|Pronunciation =
|Ethn15name =Akkadian
|OLACname =Akkadian
|WALSname =
|WALSLoc =
|Family =[[Afro-Asiatic]]
|Genus =[[East-Semitic]]
|Countries =
|OfficialLg =
|Speakers =extinct
|WritingSyst =Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform
|ISO =
|ISO2B =akk
|ISO2T =
|ISO3 =akk
|WALScode =
}}

'''Akkadian'''

===Link===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language 'Akkadian language'] in Wikipedia

===Other languages===
German: [[Akkadisch]]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Afro-Asiatic]]

Akkadisch

2013-02-04T15:33:11Z

MRiessler: cat, Links

{{stub}}

===Andere Sprachen===
Englisch: [[Akkadian]]

===Link===
[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadische_Sprache 'Akkadische Sprache'] in Wikipedia

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Afro-Asiatic]]

Category:Afro-Asiatic

2013-02-04T15:25:58Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles related to '''Afro-Asiatic'''.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language family]]

Germanic

2013-02-04T14:41:38Z

MRiessler: cat

{{InfoboxFamily|
|Family=Germanic
|Highest=[[Indo-European]]
|Genus=[[Germanic]]
|MPIExt1=GERMIC
}}

===Name===
The term '''Germanic''' was derived from ''German'' using the family suffix [[-ic]].

An alternative name is
*[[Teutonic]]

===Composition===
*[[North Germanic]]
*[[West Germanic]]
*[[East Germanic]]

===Validity of grouping===
The validity of Germanic has been well established on phonological, morphological and lexical grounds at least since Grimm 1819, which was one of the earliest comprehensive historical-comparative accounts of a language family.

===Classification===
*[[Indo-European]]

===Validity of classification===
The Indo-European affiliation of Germanic has been well established since Bopp 1818, which established the Indo-European family. It has never been in doubt.

===Link===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages Germanic languages in English Wikipedia]

===References===
*Bopp 1818...
*Grimm, Jacob. 1819. ''Deutsche Grammatik.''

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Germanic]]

Category:Indo-European

2013-02-04T14:41:01Z

MRiessler: cat

This category collects articles concerning the '''Indo-European''' language family.

[[Category:LANG]]
[[Category:Language family]]