Glottopedia - User contributions [en]

Onomatopoeion

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===Definition===
An '''onomatopoeion'' (pl. 'onomatopoeia') is a sign whose denotation is directly linked to its meaning. Onomatopoeia are [[icon]]s, not [[symbol]]s.

Example: ''miaow''

===Link===
{{Wikipedia|Onomatopoeion}}

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[[Category:Semantics]]

Onomatopoeion

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===Definition==
An '''onomatopoeion'' (pl. 'onomatopoeia') is a sign whose denotation is directly linked to its meaning. Onomatopoeia are [[icon]]s, not [[symbol]]s.

Example: ''miaow''

===Link===
{{Wikipedia|Onomatopoeion}}

{{dc}}
[[Category:Semantics]]

Speech error

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==Definition==
A '''speech error''' is a non-canonical aspect of an [[utterance]] that was not intended by the [[speaker]].

Mispronunciations or speech errors can be divided into different types.

# '''[[anticipation]]s''': 'a leading list' (for 'a reading list')
# '''[[perseveration]]s''': 'at the beginning of the burn' (for 'at the beginning of the turn')
# '''[[reversal]]s''' or [[spoonerism]]s: 'heft lemisphere' (for 'left hemisphere')
: (Examples are taken from Fromkin 1973)

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Speech+error&lemmacode=1303 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

==Synonyms==
*[[slip of the tongue]]

==Related terms==
*[[slip of the ear]]
*[[slip of the pen]]
*[[slip of the hand]]

==References==
* [[Victoria A. Fromkin|Fromkin, Victoria A.]] (ed.) 1973. ''Speech errors as linguistic evidence.'' The Hangue: Mouton.
* Fromkin, Victoria A. 1973. 'Slips of the tongue', Scientific American 229, 1973, 114.
* Fromkin, Victoria A. (ed.) 1980. ''Errors in linguistic performance: Slips of the tongue, ear, pend and hand.'' New York: Academic Press.

==Other languages==
German [[Versprecher]]/[[Sprechfehler]]

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[[Category:Psycholinguistics]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Speech error]]
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Sprachfamilie

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==Definition==
Eine größere Gruppe von prinzipiell eigenständigen Sprachen, die aber gewisse Merkmale (syntaktische, lexikalische) teilen.
Beispiele: germanische, slawische, romanische Sprachen.

==Andere Sprachen==
englisch [[language family]]

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[[Category:Diachrony]]

Spectrum

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==Definition==
A '''spectrum''' is an [[amplitude]] versus [[frequency]] plot of the simple [[sine wave]] components of a complex wave. Also called '''power spectrum'''.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Spectrum&lemmacode=1302 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www.ling.lu.se/research/speechtutorial/tutorial.html Tutorial on speech analysis (including the spectrum)]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Sprachwechsel

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==Definition==
'''Sprachwechsel''' bezeichnet die Aufgabe einer Sprache zugunsten einer anderen durch eine Sprechergemeinschaft.

==Polysemie==
Eine andere Bedeutung findet sich unter [[Sprachwechsel (d.h. Codewechsel)]]

==Andere Sprachen==
Englisch [[language shift]]

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[[Category:Bilingualism]]
[[Category:Language contact]]
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Steady state

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==Definition==
Part of a [[vowel]] in which [[formant]]s are "steady", i.e. they do not move. In a CVC [[syllable]], it is that part of the vowel after the formant [[transition]] from the first C and before the transition to the second C.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Steady+state&lemmacode=1310 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Spectrogram

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==Definition==
A [[spectrogram]] is a graphic representation of the components ([[harmonics]] or [[formant]]s) of a [[sound]] as they vary in [[frequency]] and [[intensity]] over time. Frequency is shown on the vertical axis; time is shown on the horizontal axis, and intensity as relative darkness of the image.

==Subtypes==
[[Narrowband spectrogram]]s are marked by the more or less narrow horizontal bands which represent the harmonics of the glottal source. The darker bands represent the harmonics that are closest to peaks of resonance in the [[vocal tract]]. The lighter bands represent harmonics whose frequencies are further away from the resonance peaks. The [[bandwidth]] of the filter used to generate narrowband spectrograms is usually between 30 and 50 Hz. As the fundamental frequency is unlikely to be lower than 50 Hz, a filter with that bandwidth will respond to and capture each harmonic separately as it scans through the frequencies in the speech signal. Narrowband spectrograms have traditionally been used for making measurements of [[fundamental frequency]] and [[intonation]].

[[Wideband spectrogram]]s are marked by the relatively broad bands of energy that depict the [[formant]]s. The centre of each band of energy is taken to be the frequency of the formant, and the range of frequencies occupied by the band is taken to be the bandwidth of the formant. The relative degree of darkness of a band of energy can be used as a rough estimate of the intensity of the signal, and the relatively large horizontal blank spaces between the formants represent troughs (antiformants) in the resonance curve of the vocal tract. Information about the timing of changes in vocal tract resonance is more reliably obtained from wideband spectrograms. Unlike a narrowband spectrogram, a wideband display will effectively represent an aperiodic source that is being resonanted in the vocal tract. The bandwidth of a filter used to generate a wideband spectrogram is generally between 300 and 500 Hz. A filter with such a relatively wide bandwidth will respond in the same way to one, two, three or even more harmonics that fall within its range: the filter will not resolve the energy within its bandwidth into individual harmonics.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Spectrogram&lemmacode=1298 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www.ling.lu.se/research/speechtutorial/tutorial.html Spectrograms]
* [http://cslu.cse.ogi.edu/tutordemos/SpectrogramReading/spectrogram_reading.html A tutorial on spectrogram reading]

===Other languages===
German [[Spektrogramm]]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

Spectral slope

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==Definition==
The [[amplitude]] of the [[harmonics]] resulting from [[vocal folds|vocal fold]] vibration falls off by 12 [[dB]] per [[octave]]. This means that each time the [[frequency]] doubles, the amplitude of the harmonics decreases by 12 dB. This is called the '''spectral slope''' (or '''tilt''' or '''roll-off''') in the source [[spectrum]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Spectral+slope&lemmacode=1390 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Spectral envelope

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==Definition==
The '''spectral envelope''' is the smoothing curve passing through the [[peak]]s of the [[spectrum]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Spectral+envelope&lemmacode=1379 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Specifier-head agreement

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==Definition==
'''Specifier-head agreement''' (or '''spec-head agreement''') is a notion introduced in Chomsky (1986b) to describe the sharing of [[phi-features]] between the [[head]] and the [[specifier]] of [[IP]]. In later work (cf. Chomsky (1991)) the domain of spec-head agreement has been extended to [[functional category|functional categories]] other than IP.

==See also==
*[[Agreement]]

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Specifier-Head+agreement&lemmacode=245 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Syntax]]

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Specifier

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==Definition==
In the [[X-bar theory]] of [[generative syntax]], the '''specifier''' is the position which is directly dominated by the [[maximal projection]] of X: [XP specifier X].

Many different functions are being assigned to this position, depending on the [[category]] of X, such as [[Determiner]] of [[NP]], [[degree element]] of [[AP]], [[subject]] of [[IP]], or [[modifier]] ([[adverb]] or even [[auxiliary]]) of [[VP]]. (One version of) the VP-internal Subject Hypothesis holds that Spec,VP is the [[D-structure]] position of the verb's external argument. In many analyses of [[movement]] (see [[bounding theory]]), the specifier position plays an important role as an intermediate [[landing site]] (or [[escape hatch]]) for [[A-bar movement]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Specifier&lemmacode=244 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1986b. ''Barriers,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.

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[[Category:Syntax]]
[[Category:Generative grammar]]

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Specified subject condition

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==Definition==
The '''Specified Subject Condition''' is a condition introduced in Chomsky (1973) which states that:

(i) No rule can involve X, Y in the structure
... X ... [a ... Z ... -WYV ... ] ...
where Z is the specified subject of WYZ in a

Informally, a subject is specified if it is overt. Therefore, the reciprocal ''each other'' can be bound by ''the men'' in (ii), but not in (iii):

(ii) The men saw [NP the pictures of each other]
(iii) *The men saw [NP John's pictures of each other]

The specified subject ''John'' in (iii) blocks the binding relation between ''the men'' and ''each other''. In later work, the SSC is subsumed under the [[binding theory]].

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Specified+Subject+Condition&lemmacode=243 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1982. ''Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
* Chomsky, N. 1980. ''On binding,'' Linguistic Inquiry 11-1, pp.1-46
* Chomsky, N. 1973. ''Conditions on transformations,'' in: S.R. Anderson & P. Kiparsky, A festschrift for Morris Halle, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.

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[[Category:Syntax]]
[[Category:Generative grammar]]

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Specificity condition

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==Definition==
'''Specificity Condition''' is a condition on [[movement]] which states that movement out of specific [[NP]]s leads to worse results than movement out of non-specific NPs. This is shown by the contrast in (i) (showing ''wh''-movement out of a definite NP) and (ii) (''wh''-movement out of a non-specific indefinite NP). Also known as Specificity Constraint.

(i) a *who did you see [that picture of t]
b *who did you see [John's picture of t]
(ii) a who did you see [three pictures of t]
b who did you see [more pictures of t]

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Specificity+Condition&lemmacode=242 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1986b. ''Barriers,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
* Chomsky, N. 1973. ''Conditions on transformations,'' in: S.R. Anderson & P. Kiparsky, A festschrift for Morris Halle, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
* Fiengo, R. & J. Higginbotham 1981. ''Opacity in NP,'' Linguistic Analysis 7-4, pp.395-421

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Specific reading

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==Definition==
'''Specific reading''' is the [[reading]] that an [[indefinite]] [[noun phrase]] has when there is a particular [[referent]] of that noun phrase. In the sentence ''John seeks a unicorn'', ''a unicorn'' has a specific reading when there is a particular unicorn that John is looking for. This reading entails the existence of unicorns in the domain of discourse. ''A unicorn'' has a nonspecific reading when John is looking for an arbitrary unicorn. This does not entail the existence of unicorns. The specificity-contrast is often analyzed in terms of the relative scope of the indefinite with respect to an [[opaque context]]. The specific reading, then, corresponds with the [[wide scope]] (or de re) reading, while the nonspecific reading corresponds with the [[narrow scope]] (or de dicto) reading.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Specific+reading&lemmacode=241 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Semantics]]

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Speaker's reference

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==Definition==
'''Speaker's reference''' is the [[reference]] that a [[noun phrase]] has in virtue of what the speaker chooses it to be, as distinguished from the [[semantic reference]], that it has in virtue of its [[meaning]]. Kripke (1977) argued that [[referential noun phrase]]s and [[attributive noun phrase]]s have the same semantic reference but possibly different speaker's references.

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Speaker%27s+reference&lemmacode=240 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Kripke, S.A. 1977. ''Speakers Reference and Semantic Reference,'' in:P.A. French, T.E. Uehling, and H.K. Wettstein (eds.), Contemporary Perspectives in the Philosophy of Language, University of Minnesota Press:Minneapolis.

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[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Incomplete article]]

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Source-filter theory

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==Definition==
'''Source-filter theory''' is a theory of [[speech production]] that emphasises the [[glottis|glottal]] source of sound and the filtering function of the supraglottal cavities.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Source-filter+theory&lemmacode=1297 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www.haskins.yale.edu/haskins/HEADS/MMSP/figure3.html Source-Filter Model for Selected Vowels]
* [http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/phonetik/EGG/page4.htm#features Source-Filter Model of Speech Production]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Source

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==Definition==
'''Source''' is a one of the possible [[semantic role]]s of a [[verb]], indicating the place or object where the movement expressed by the verb starts.

== Example ==
In ''John received a book from Mary'' Mary is the source of the movement of the book (the [[theme]]) to John (the [[goal]]).

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Source&lemmacode=239 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Fillmore, C.J. 1968. ''The Case for Case,'' in: E. Bach & R.T. Harms (eds.) Universals In Linguistic Theory, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
* Gruber, J. 1965. ''Studies in lexical relations,'' doctoral dissertation, MIT
* Jackendoff, R. 1990. ''Semantic Structures,'' Cambridge, MIT-Press.
* Jackendoff, R. 1983. ''Semantics and cognition,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

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[[Category:Semantics]]

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Sonority

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==Definition==
'''Sonority''' is a perceptual property referring to the [[loudness]] (audibility) and propensity for spontaneous voicing of a [[sound]] relative to that of other sounds with the same length.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sonority&lemmacode=237 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonology]]

Sonorant

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==Definition==
'''Sonorant''' is a [[phonological feature]] which characterizes [[sound]]s that are produced in such a way that the [[vocal cords]] vibrate spontaneously (i.e. [[vowel]]s, [[glide]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[nasal]]s).

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sonorant&lemmacode=236 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]

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Small clause

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==Definition==
'''Small Clause''' is [[subject]]-[[predicate]] construction without a [[finite verb]].

== Example ==
The [[PP]] in (i) and the [[NP]] in (ii) are analyzed as small clauses with ''him'' the subject.

(i) I want [PP him out of my sight]
(ii) They consider [NP him a fine teacher]

In general a small clause is an XP with a subject, where X = N, A, V or P. It is a point of debate whether the subject is in the [[specifier]] position of XP, or adjoined to XP at D-structure.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Small+Clause&lemmacode=234 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Hoekstra, T. & R. Mulder 1990. ''Unergatives as Copular Verbs The Linguisitc Review 7,''
* Stowell, T. 1983. ''Subjects across Categories,'' The Linguistic Review 2, .

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Sluicing

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==Definition==
'''Sluicing''' is reducing a [[wh-question|''wh''-question]] to its [[wh-phrase|''wh''-phrase(s)]] in a [[context]] where the omitted part can be reconstructed from the preceding [[sentence]].

== Example ==
In (i) the content of the complement clause of ''know'' is understood as ''which sonata's Susan has played''.

(i) Susan has played some sonata's, but I don't know which sonata's __

Sentences like (i) raise the question whether there is an [[empty category]] following ''which sonata's'', and if so, how it is licensed (see [[licensing]]).

==Origin==
The term goes back to Ross (1969).

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sluicing&lemmacode=233 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Ross, J.R. 1969. ''Guess who?.,'' Papers from the 5th Regional Meeting of Chigago Linguistic Society, 252-286

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[[Category:Syntax]]

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Slit tongue

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==Definition==
A [[manner of articulation]] where air is released over the surface of the [[articulator]]s through a narrow, horizontal opening (e.g. /f/, /th/). These contrast with [[grooved tongue|grooved]] fricatives, where a hollowing of the [[tongue]] is involved (/s/, /sh/).

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Slit+tongue&lemmacode=1294 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]

Slip of the tongue

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==Definition==
A '''slip of the tongue''' is the same as a [[speech error]].

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[[Category:Psycholinguistics]]
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Sisterhood condition

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==Definition==
The '''Sisterhood condition''' is a condition on [[theta-role]] assignment which requires the theta-marker and the [[target]] of theta-marking to be [[sister]]s. This condition is proposed in Chomsky (1986b).

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sisterhood+Condition&lemmacode=231 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1986b. ''Barriers,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.

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[[Category:Syntax]]

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Sister

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==Definition==
Two [[node]]s A and B are '''sisters''' [[iff]] there is a node C (their [[mother]]) which immediately dominates both A and B.

==See also==
* [[tree structure]]
* [[dominance]]

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sister&lemmacode=230 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Sibilant

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==Definition==
A '''sibilant''' is a [[fricative]] speech [[sound]] with high [[frequency]] (/s, sh/ and their [[voiced]] cognates).

== Link ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sibilancy&lemmacode=1291 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

==Other languages==
German [[Sibilant (de)]]

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[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]

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Shortlist model

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==Definition==
In phonetics, the '''Shortlist model''' is a [[hybrid]] model of [[auditory word recognition]]. The term ''hybrid'' means that the initial stage of [[word recognition]] is assumed not to be influenced by non-sensory sources of information, and that the later stages of selection and integration are assumed to be affected by these non-sensory sources of information.

==Comment==
The Shortlist model takes a [[phoneme string]] as its input. On the basis of this input a shortlist of [[word candidate]]s is selected, which enter into competition. The shortlist is constantly updated while more phonemic information comes in, and while candidates are eliminated as a result of the competition process. Sentence context influences lexical processing during the stage of selection. Apart from placing the effect of sentence [[context]] relatively late during selection (thus decreasing the importance of the sentence context), Shortlist also incorporates a mechanism of bottom-up inhibition: in case a contextually appropriate candidate no longer fits the acoustic information, its activation is decreased.

== Link ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Shortlist+model&lemmacode=1290 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Norris, D. 1994. ''Shortlist: A connectionist model of continuous speech recognition,'' Cognition, 52, 189-234

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[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Psycholinguistics]]

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Shimmer

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==Definition==
Fluctuations in [[amplitude]]. Like [[jitter]], measures of shimmer serve as an index of [[vocal stability]]. Excessive shimmer has been tied to the perception of hoarseness. A mean amplitude difference of 0.7 [[dB]] or variation less than about 7% of the mean amplitude may be expected in a sustained [[phonation]] produced by a normal speaker.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Shimmer&lemmacode=1289 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/~audiufon/data/bronparameters.html#demoshimmer Audio demonstration]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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Shape component

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==Definition==
'''Shape Component''' is a component in the [[grammar]] proposed in the work of [[Arnold Zwicky]]. This component contains the [[lexicon]], together with separate sets of [[inflection]]al rules and [[derivation]]al rules. Moreover, this component houses the Shape Conditions which govern the selection of different [[allomorph]]s postlexically, that is, in the [[syntax]].

== Example ==
The distribution of the English ''a/an'' allomorphs (''a book'' vs. ''an apple'') is handled by a Shape Condition.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Shape+Component&lemmacode=222 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Zwicky, A. 1977. ''On clitics,'' IULC, Bloomington.

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[[Category:Morphology]]

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Separation hypothesis

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==Definition==
In morphological theory, the '''Separation Hypothesis''' (originally formulated by [[Robert Beard]]) is the claim that that the [[form]] of [[inflection]]al and [[derivation]]al [[affix]]es is separated from their [[function]]. Beard distinguishes [[L-rule]]s and [[M-rule]]s, and assumes that L-rules are grammatical processes which change or add information about grammatical functions (e.g. 'plural' or 'agent noun'), while M-rules are affixation rules which spell out the grammatical functions.

== Example ==
English plurals are formed in a number of ways, as is shown in (i):

(i) cat-cats, bus-busses, alga-algae, paramecium-paramecia, goose-geese

Under the separation hypothesis there is a single L-rule of pluralization which simply adds the feature [plural]. The resulting abstract morpheme is input to different M-rules, and these rules spell out the actual phonological form of the plurals in (i). On the other hand, [[conversion]] can be seen to be simply the situation which arises when an L-rule applies, but no M-rule gets the chance of giving phonological content to the function supplied by the L-rule.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Separation+Hypothesis&lemmacode=221 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Ackema & Don 1992. ''Splitting morphology,'' Linguistics in the Netherlands 1992, pp. 1-12
* Beard, R. 1988. ''On the Separation of Derivation From Morphology Toward a Lexeme/Morpheme-Based Morphology,'' Quaderni di Semantica a. IX, n. 1, pp.3-59
* Beard, R. 1987. ''Morpheme Order in a Lexeme/Morpheme-Based Morphology,'' Lingua 72, pp. 1-44
* Beard, R. 1982. ''Is separation natural,'' Studia Gramatycne VII, 119-133
* Don, J. 1993. ''Morphological Conversion,'' PhD diss. Utrecht University.
* Sproat, R. 1985. ''On Deriving the Lexicon,'' PhD diss. MIT.

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[[Category:Morphology]]

Sentential subject constraint

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==Definition==
'''Sentential Subject Constraint''' is one of the constraints on [[movement]] proposed by Ross (1967). It states that

: No element dominated by an S may be moved out of that S if that S is dominated by an [[NP]] which itself is immediately dominated by S,

and is meant to capture the fact that categories cannot be moved out of a sentential subject.

== Example ==
Consider (i) and (ii), both containing a sentential subject (the ''for''-clause and the ''that''-clause respectively).

(i) [for Haarhuis to beat Becker] is easy
(ii) [that Haarhuis beat Becker] pleased us

The Sentential Subject Constraint now correctly predicts that ''wh''-movement of ''Becker'' out of the sentential subject leads to ungrammaticality:

(i') * Who is [for Haarhuis to beat t] easy?
(ii') * Who did [that Haarhuis beat t] please us?

The Sentential Subject Constraint falls under the [[Subject condition]] of Huang's (1982) [[Condition on Extraction Domain]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Sentential+Subject+Constraint&lemmacode=220 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Huang, James 1982. ''Move wh in a language without wh-movement,'' Linguistic review, 369-416
* Ross, J.R. 1967. ''Constraints on variables in syntax,'' doctoral dissertation, MIT (published as 'Infinite syntax!' Ablex, Norwood (1986)).

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Semivowel

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==Definition==
The sounds /w,j,r,l/ are often called '''semivowels''' because their [[formant structure]]s are like those for [[vowel]]s and [[diphthong]]s. The /r/ and /l/ sounds produced in [[syllable]] final position can be prolonged as in 'car' or 'full' and sound much like vowels. When /w/ or /j/ are produced slowly enough, the vowels /u/ and /i/ can be heard.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semivowels&lemmacode=1288 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]

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Semitone scale

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==Definition==
Twelve [[semitone]]s form one [[octave]], which is defined as a doubling of the [[fundamental frequency]]. As the human [[auditory system]] perceives tones in a logarithmic way (instead of in a linear way), the logarithmic semitone scale is a more appropriate measure of the perceptual consequences of differences in fundamental frequency. The following conversion transforms frequency (F) values into semitones (ST):

ST=39.87*log(F/50)

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semitone+scale&lemmacode=1363 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

Semitone

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==Definition==
One [[octave]] is divided into twelve halve tones or semitones. The difference in [[fundamental frequency]] of one semitone equals about 6% in [[Hz]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semitone&lemmacode=1285 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

Semantische Komplementarität

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== Definition ==
Semantische Komplementarität bezeichnet einen Zusammenhang zwischen zwei sprachlichen Ausdrücken, die sich gegenseitig ausschließen und einen gemeinsamen Objektbereich vollständig abdecken.

==Beispiel==
Junge - Mädchen; frei - besetzt

== Kommentar ==
Zwei semantisch komplementäre Ausdrücke haben identische Bedeutungen bis auf ein einziges Merkmal, in dem sie sich gegenseitig ausschließen. Sie beziehen sich auf denselben Objektbereich, in dem sie alle Möglichkeiten durch ein bipolares Merkmal abdecken. Semantisch komplementäre Ausdrücke sind daher nicht graduierbar. 
Semantische Komplementarität impliziert immer auch [[logische Komplementarität]].

== Literatur ==
*Löbner, Sebastian. Semantik, Eine Einführung, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2003, S. 95, 101f,105f, 203, 127, 203, 212.
*Kirchner, Friedrich. Wörterbuch der philosophischen Grundbegriffe, Kontradiktion: http://www.textlog.de/1515.html

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Semantics]]

Semantische Ausbleichung

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== Definition ==
Im Verlauf eines semantischen Generalisierungsprozesses, können Sprachzeichen semantische Merkmale verlieren. Diesen Ablauf nennt man oft „semantisches Ausbleichen“. So kann z.B. ein Nomen seine Bedeutung wandeln, von einer spezifischeren, hin zu einer allgemeinen Bedeutung.

==Andere Sprachen==
*Englisch: [[semantic bleaching]]

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[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Semantics]]

Semantic representation

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==Definition==
'''Semantic representation''' is an abstract [[formal language|(formal) language]] in which [[meaning]]s can be represented.

Opinions differ about whether semantic representation is sufficient or necessary, about its form and about how it relates to syntactic representations. Mentalistic, representational theories of meaning claim that a mental semantic representation is necessary to account for the fact that language users grasp meanings. Denotational theories of meaning, on the other hand, claim that meaning can only be explicated in terms of denotations in the world. Semantic representation can take the form of a structure of semantic features (in the [[Katz-Fodor-semantics]] and in Jackendoff's [[conceptual structure]]) or formulas of a logical system. In the theory of [[Generative semantics]], semantic representations were identified with syntactic deep structures. In almost all other theories, semantic representations are an autonomous level of representation related to deep structure, surface structure and/or LF. See [[meaning theories]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semantic+representation&lemmacode=217 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet 1990. ''Meaning and grammar,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
* Jackendoff, R. 1983. ''Semantics and cognition,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

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[[Category:Semantics]]

Semantic interpretation

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==Definition==
'''Semantic interpretation''' is the process by which [[syntactic structures]] are associated with their [[meaning]]. This can be done in terms of a [[semantic representation]] or in terms of values in a model. When taken as a result nominal, the term 'semantic interpretation' is used [[synonym]]ously with ''semantic representation''.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semantic+interpretation&lemmacode=215 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet 1990. ''Meaning and grammar,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.

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[[Category:Semantics]]

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Semantic compositionality

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==Definition==
We speak of '''semantic compositionality''' if the [[meaning]] of a [[complex word]] is a function of the meanings of its [[constituent]]s.

== Example ==
The meaning of English [[gerund]]s is fully compositional ('the state, action named by V').

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semantic+compositionality&lemmacode=214 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Morphology]]

Semantic component

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==Definition==
That part of [[grammar]] which contains the rules that provide syntactic structures with a [[semantic interpretation]].

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semantic+component&lemmacode=213 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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Semantic coherence

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==Definition==
'''Semantic coherence''' is a notion introduced in Aronoff (1976) which entails that the [[meaning]] of a [[derivation|derivative]] is transparently a composition of the meaning of the [[base]] and that of the [[affix]].

== Example ==
All English words of the form X''ousness'' mean:

(i) 'the fact that Y is Xous'
(ii) 'the extent to which Y is Xous'
(iii) 'the quality or state of being Xous'

Hence, the meaning of X''ousness'' words is fully compositional in meaning. This is not true for rival words of the form X''osity'' which have additional idiosyncratic meanings.

== Links ==
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Semantic+Coherence&lemmacode=212 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Aronoff, M. 1976. ''Word Formation in Generative Grammar,'' MIT-press, Cambridge, Mass.
* Spencer, A. 1991. ''Morphological Theory,'' Blackwell, Oxford.

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[[Category:Morphology]]

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Segmentation

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==Definition==
'''Segmentation''' means chopping up or slicing the speech [[signal]] into pieces. The signal can be chopped up into linguistic units, such as [[word]]s, [[syllable]]s or [[phoneme]]s. Segmentation can also mean that the signal is periodically interrupted by a period of [[noise]] or [[silence]], e.g. every 250 ms.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Segmentation&lemmacode=1555 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/~audiufon/data/segmentatie.html Audio demonstration segmentation]
* [http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/~audiufon/data/interruptie.html Audio demonstration interruption by noise]

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Segment (in syntax)

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==Definition==
In generative syntax, a '''segment''' is a structural/configurational notion. In an [[adjunction]] structure like (i), the category A consists of two segments, the upper A and the lower A.

(i) A
/|
/ |
B A

Cf. [[Exclusion]], [[Dominance]].

==Polysemy==
Another meaning:
*[[segment (in phonology)]]

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Segment&lemmacode=208 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1986b. ''Barriers,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
* Lasnik, H. and M. Saito 1992. ''Move alpha: conditions on its application and output,'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.

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[[Category:Syntax]]
[[Category:Generative grammar]]

Segment (in phonology)

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==Definition==
In phonetics and phonology, a '''segment''' is a minimal sound element that can be isolated in the chain of speech, corresponding to a letter in alphabetic representation of speech.

==Polysemy==
Another meaning:
*[[segment (in syntax)]]

==Other languages==
*German [[Segment (in der Phonologie)]]

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SAMPA

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==Definition==
Short for '''Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet'''. Computer readable phonetic alphabet using simple [[ASCII]] symbols (one or two symbols per sound) to represent the sounds.

== Links ==
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=SAMPA&lemmacode=1282 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm SAMPA web page]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

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S-structure

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==Definition==
'''S-structure''' is a level of representation derived from [[d-structure]] by [[transformational rule]]s, and input to the rules deriving [[PF]] and [[LF]]. S-structure is the [[T-model]] equivalent of [[surface structure]] in the [[Standard Theory]]. S-structure is putatively defined by conditions such as the [[subjacency]] condition.

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=S-structure&lemmacode=252 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

==References ==
* Chomsky, N. 1981. ''Lectures on Government and Binding,'' Foris, Dordrecht.

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Secondary articulation

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==Definition==
If a [[sound]] is produced with two [[places of articulation]], the secondary articulation is the point of articulation with the lesser degree of stricture.

Types of secondary articulation: [[labialisation]] (e.g. on /s/ in the Dutch word 'stroop'), [[velarisation]], [[nasalisation]], [[pharyngealisation]], [[palatalisation]], [[laryngealisation]], [[glottalisation]].

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Secondary+articulation&lemmacode=1284 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]

Scrambling

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==Definition==
'''Scrambling''' is a cover term for a specific kind of [[word order]] variation.

In the study of [[Germanic]] [[SOV]]-languages the term is used to refer to word order variation of argument [[NP]]s with respect to each other and/or with respect to [[adverbial phrase]]s.

== Example ==
In [[German]] an object may follow or precede an adverb (object and adverb may be scrambled):

(i) a Er hat ihr vielleicht dieses Buch gegeben
he has her maybe this book given
b Er hat ihr dieses Buch vielleicht gegeben

Two objects may be scrambled as well:

(ii) Er hat dieses Buch vielleicht ihr gegeben

And sometimes an object - ''den Max'' in (iii) - may even scramble over the subject, as in (iii)b:

(iii) a ... dass jeder den Max kennt
that everyone (the) Max knows
b ... dass den Max jeder kennt

It seems that [[definiteness]] is a factor interfering with scrambling. Nonspecific indefinite NPs cannot be scrambled and neither can particles or small clause predicates. One point of controversy is whether scrambling is a case of movement (of NP) and if so whether it is [[A-bar movement]] or not.

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Scrambling&lemmacode=206 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
* Grewendorf , G & W. Sternefeld (eds.) 1990. ''Scrambling and Barriers,'' John Benjamins,Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
* Neeleman, A. 1994. ''Complex Predicates,'' diss., Utrecht University
* Ross, J.R. 1967. ''Constraints on variables in syntax,'' doctoral dissertation, MIT (published as 'Infinite syntax!' Ablex, Norwood (1986)).
* Webelhuth, G. 1989. ''Syntactic Saturation Phenomena and the Modern Germanic Languages,'' Diss, UMass.
* Webelhuth, G. & H. Den Besten 1987. ''Adjunction and Remnant Topicalization in the Germanic SOV-languages,'' GLOW conference Venice, .

==Other languages==
*German [[Scrambling (de)]]

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[[Category:Syntax]]

Scope

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==Definition==
'''Scope''' is that part of a [[formula]] to which an operator is prefixed.

== Example ==
phi is the scope of Neg in Neg phi and of All(x) in All(x) [ phi ]. The scope of an operator in complex formulas is determined by brackets. In the formula in (i) the subformula P(x) -> Q(y) is the scope of All(x), but R(x) is outside the scope of All(x).

(i) All(x) [ P(x) -> Q(y) ] & R(x)

=== Syntax ===
It is usually assumed that for those syntactic elements which are interpreted as elements with scope (e.g. NPs such as ''everyone'' and ''who'', which are interpreted as (quantificational) operators), the scope assigned to the element that is the interpretation of the syntactic element is determined as a function of the syntactic context of the syntactic element. It has often been assumed, furthermore, that the notion [[c-command]] plays a crucial role in the determination of the scope of (the interpretation of) quantificational and other scopal elements. Thus, May (1977) states that "the scope of a quantifier phi is everything which it c-commands" (meaning: at LF). Thus, if the relevant syntactic level of representation where scope is determined is the level of LF (which is denied, e.g., by Williams (1986)) then which LFs can be derived from a given S-structure determines the possible scopal orders of the scopal elements in the structure (see [[scope ambiguity]], [[QR]]).

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Scope&lemmacode=204 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

== References ==
*Gamut, L.T.F. 1991. ''Logic, language, and meaning,'' Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.

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