http://glottopedia.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=MaJoK%C3%BC&feedformat=atomGlottopedia - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T13:09:56ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.34.2http://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=User:MaJoK%C3%BC&diff=15015User:MaJoKü2013-11-20T21:35:08Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Link */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Link===<br />
[http://www.indogermanistik.uni-jena.de/index.php?auswahl=196&ident=LE_d26b86473ab3256eb0d68a4a4f48de8e Homepage]<br />
<br />
[[Category:LINGUIST|Kümmel, Martin]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Junggrammatiker&diff=11654Junggrammatiker2011-09-02T19:05:07Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{cats}}{{format}}<br />
<br />
Der Begriff '''Junggrammatiker''' bezeichnet eine Gruppe von Sprachwissenschaftlern, die sich in den 70er Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts in Leipzig bildete. <br />
Die Junggrammatiker sehen die Sprachwissenschaft ausschließlich als diachronische, als historisch-vergleichende Disziplin. Das kommt in dem wohl wichtigsten Werk dieser Zeit, den „Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte“ von Hermann Paul zum Ausdruck: „''Die Sprache ist wie jedes Erzeugnis menschlicher Kultur ein Gegenstand der geschichtlichen Betrachtung''“ (Paul 1995, S. 1). Neben Pauls „Prinzipien“ wird vor allem das Vorwort zum Teil 1 der von Karl Brugmann und Hermann Osthoff herausgegebenen „Morphologischen Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen“ (abgedruckt in Christmann 1977, S. 190-205) als Manifest der Junggrammatiker angesehen.<br />
In Anlehnung an die Naturwissenschaft postulierte die Gruppe, dass alle Lautgesetze ohne Ausnahme wirken. Dort, wo dieser Anspruch nicht greift, wirkt als Ergänzung das Analogieprinzip. Es beschreibt, wie sich sprachliche Formen an schon bestehende Formen angleichen. Die Junggrammatiker kehrten sich von der Auffassung ihres Vorgängers August Schleicher ab, dass Sprache ein natürlicher Organismus sei. Vielmehr sahen sie Sprache als psychisch-physische Tätigkeit, bei der sowohl das Gehirn als auch der Artikulationsapparat zusammenarbeiten. In den Mittelpunkt wurde die Sprachtätigkeit des einzelnen Sprechers, des Individuums gerückt, von welchem jeglicher Wandel ausgeht.<br />
Viele der wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten der Junggrammatiker beruhen auf Untersuchungen zur indogermanischen Sprachfamilie. Ihre Beschreibungen von Sprache konzentrieren sich hauptsächlich auf die Lautebene, doch spielten auch Morphologie und Syntax eine Rolle.<br />
<br />
Zu den wichtigsten Vertretern der Junggrammatischen Schule zählen August Leskien (1840-1916), Berthold Delbrück (1842-1922), Hermann Paul (1846-1921), Hermann Osthoff (1847-1909), Karl Brugmann (1849-1919), Eduard Sievers (1850-1932) und Otto Behaghel (1854-1936).<br />
<br />
'''Synonyme''' <br />
<br />
Leipziger Schule<br />
<br />
<br />
'''andere Sprachen'''<br />
<br />
englisch: Neogrammarians<br />
<br />
'''Literatur'''<br />
<br />
- Bartschat, Brigitte 1996: Methoden der Sprachwissenschaft. Von Hermann Paul bis Noam Chomsky. Berlin: Erich Schmidt.<br />
<br />
- Einhauser, Eveline 1989: Die Junggrammatiker. Ein Problem für die Sprachwissenschaftsgeschichtsschreibung. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.<br />
<br />
- Christmann, Hans Helmut (Hrsg.) 1977: Sprachwissenschaft des 19. Jahrhunderts. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.<br />
<br />
- Paul, Hermann 1995: Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. 10., unveränderte Auflage. Tübingen: Niemeyer.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change&diff=11653Sound change2011-09-02T19:02:46Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sound change''' is a kind of [[language change]] concerning the phonological system (including phonetic realisation).<br />
<br />
If a sound change is a general phenomenon, it is called a [[sound law]] or a [[phonetical rule]]. Exceptions to the law or rule can normally be explained by analogy. Some important sound laws were described by the [[Neogrammarians]] (e.g., Grimm's Law, Verner's Law for Germanic, Grassmann's Law for Sanskrit and Ancient Greek).<br />
<br />
To describe sound changes, a special notation is used:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][+voiced] > [-son][-voiced] /__#</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
= voiced non-sonorant sounds, i.e., voiced obstruents become voiceless at the end of a word (final devoicing).<br />
<br />
===andere Sprachen===<br />
<br />
German [[Lautwandel]]<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Diachrony]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Lautwandel&diff=11652Lautwandel2011-09-02T19:00:25Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Lautwandel''' ist eine Art von [[Sprachwandel]], der die phonetische und/oder phonologische Systeme betrifft.<br />
<br />
Wenn der Lautwandel ein allgemeingültiges Phänomen ist, wird er als [[Lautgesetz]] oder als [[phonetische Regel]] bezeichnet. Einige bekannte Lautgesetze wurden von den [[Junggrammatiker|Junggrammatikern]] formuliert (z.B. [[Grimmsches Gesetz]], [[Vernersches Gesetz]], [[Grassmannsches Gesetz]]).<br />
<br />
Um Lautwandelphänomene zu beschreiben wird eine besondere Schreibweise angewendet:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][+sth] > [-son][-sth] /__#</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
= stimmhafte Plosive, Frikative und Affrikate werden am Wortende stimmlos (Auslautverhärtung)<br />
<br />
===andere Sprachen===<br />
<br />
englisch [[sound change]]<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Diachrony]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=North_Saami&diff=11566North Saami2011-06-23T10:59:11Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{InfoboxLanguage|<br />
Language=North Saami<br />
|Autonym=Davvisámegiella<br />
|WALSname=Saami, Northern<br />
|Ethn15name=Saami, North<br />
|Countries=[[Sweden, Norway ]]<br />
|WALSLoc=<br />
|Speakers= 15000 (Norway); 25000 (all Countries)<br />
|Family= [[Uralic]]<br />
|Genus=[[Saamic]]<br />
*[[Central Saamic]]<br />
|OfficialLg=<br />
|ISO1=-<br />
|ISO2B=sme<br />
|ISO2T=<br />
|Ethn15=sme<br />
|MPIExt1=<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Name ===<br />
<br />
<br />
Alternative names:<br />
*Northern Lapp<br />
*Norwegian Lapp<br />
<br />
=== Location ===<br />
<br />
Sweden, Norway, Finland.<br />
<br />
Standard language 1948, reformed 1973. Recognized minority language in the municipalities of Kautokeino, Karasjok, Kåfjord, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana (N), Gällivare, Jokkmokk, Kiruna (S), and Enontekiö, Inari, Sodankylä, Utsjoki (SF).<br />
<br />
=== Speakers ===<br />
<br />
15000 in Norway, 4000 in Sweden, and 2000 in Finland according to Ethnologue.<br />
<br />
=== Dialects ===<br />
<br />
North Saami is divided in three main groups: Torne Saami (in the south), Finnmark Saami, and Sea Saami (on the coast).<br />
<br />
Torne Saami shares some features with [[Lule Saami]] and may therefore be considered transitional to the western group of Central Saami. It is subdivided into four dialects.<br />
<br />
Sea Saami shows some remarkable achaisms that agree with [[Eastern Saamic]], especially the retention of geminated nasals. Its western dialect shares some features with western Finnmark Saami, while its central and eastern dialect rather agree with eastern Finnmark Saami, and the eastern dialect shares some features with Inari Saami.<br />
<br />
Finnmark Saami (spoken by the majority of North Saami speakers) may be divided into western and eastern dialects. In the east stressed long vowels and diphthongs show front-back umlaut variation, stressed short vowels might be lengthened depending on the quantity of the following consonants, and single short intervocalic b, g are fricativized. In the west, "preaspirated" clusters ''hp, ht, hk'' are simplified to ''h'' (if following an unstressed vowel), and after a short stressed vowel, geminate consonants or unstressed ''a'' may be lengthened.<br />
<br />
=== Classification ===<br />
:[[Uralic]] <br />
::[[Finnic-Ugric]] <br />
:::[[Saamic]] <br />
::::[[Central Saamic]] <br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Aikio, Ante (1986): Some issues in the study of language shift in the Northern Calotte. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:5, 361-378.<br />
*Bartens, Hans-Hermann (1989): Lehrbuch der saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg: Buske.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1976) Lappische Grammatik mit Lesestücken. Aus dem Norwegischen übersetzt von Werner Dontenwill. Wiesba¬den: Harrassowitz<br />
*Collinder, Bjørn (1949): The Lappish dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsa¬la.<br />
*Frette, Thor (1975): Norsk-saamisk ordbok / Dárugie-sámigiel sádigir’ji. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Gaski, Harald (1991): Våja våja nana nana: saamiske tekster. Oslo : LNU.<br />
*Huss, Leena (1999): Reversing language shift in the Far North: linguistic revitalization in Northern Scandinavia and Fin-land. [Studia Uralica et Altaica Upsaliensia 31]. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988a): The Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 41-57.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988b): The History of the Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 264-287.<br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1929): Sprachlehre des Nordlappischen nach den seelappischen Mundarten. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.<br />
*Kusmenko, Jurij (2008): Der saamische Einfluss auf die skandinavischen Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur skandinavischen Sprachgeschichte. [Berliner Beiträge zur Skandinavistik, 10]. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut der Humboldt-Universität.<br />
*Nielsen, Konrad & Nesheim, Asbjørn (1962): Lappisk ordbok, grunnet på dialektene i Polmak, Karasjok og Kautokeino. 5 Bde. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Saami Linguistics Bibliography. Compiled by Anita Szakay, Michael Rießler, Ida Toivonen, Diane Nelson, Zita McRobbie-Utasi & Nina Widjaja. In: Toivonen, Ida & Nelson, Diane (2007), Saami linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 259-304<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1989): Saami-suoma satnegirji : Saamelais-suomalainen sanakirja. Ohcejohka: Jorgaleaddji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998a): The Saami Languages: An introduction. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998b): Saamic. In: Abondolo, Daniel (ed., 1998): The Uralic languages. London: Routledge, 43-95.<br />
*Svonni, Mikael (1990): Sámi-ruota, ruota-sámi sátnegirji / Saamisk-svensk, svensk-saamisk ordbok. Jokkmokk: Sámi Girjjit.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
*Deutsch [[Nord-Saami]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:LANG]]<br />
[[Category:Single language]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=North_Saami&diff=11565North Saami2011-06-23T10:57:55Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{InfoboxLanguage|<br />
Language=North Saami<br />
|Autonym=Davvisámegiella<br />
|WALSname=Saami, Northern<br />
|Ethn15name=Saami, North<br />
|Countries=[[Sweden, Norway ]]<br />
|WALSLoc=<br />
|Speakers= 15000 (Norway); 25000 (all Countries)<br />
|Family= [[Uralic]]<br />
|Genus=[[Saamic]]<br />
*[[Central Saamic]]<br />
|OfficialLg=<br />
|ISO1=-<br />
|ISO2B=sme<br />
|ISO2T=<br />
|Ethn15=sme<br />
|MPIExt1=<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Name ===<br />
<br />
<br />
Alternative names:<br />
*Northern Lapp<br />
*Norwegian Lapp<br />
<br />
=== Location ===<br />
<br />
Sweden, Norway, Finland.<br />
<br />
Standard language 1948, reformed 1973. Recognized minority language in the municipalities of Kautokeino, Karasjok, Kåfjord, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana (N), Gällivare, Jokkmokk, Kiruna (S), and Enontekiö, Inari, Sodankylä, Utsjoki (SF).<br />
<br />
=== Speakers ===<br />
<br />
15000 in Norway, 4000 in Sweden, and 2000 in Finland according to Ethnologue.<br />
<br />
=== Dialects ===<br />
<br />
North Saami is divided in three main groups: Torne Saami (in the south), Finnmark Saami, and Sea Saami (on the coast).<br />
<br />
Torne Saami shares some features with [[Lule Saami]] and may therefore be considered transitional to the western group of Central Saami. It is subdivided into four dialects.<br />
<br />
Sea Saami shows some remarkable achaisms that agree with [[Eastern Saami]], especially the retention of geminated nasals. Its western dialect shares some features with western Finnmark Saami, while its central and eastern dialect rather agree with eastern Finnmark Saami, and the eastern dialect shares some features with Inari Saami.<br />
<br />
Finnmark Saami (spoken by the majority of North Saami speakers) may be divided into western and eastern dialects. In the east stressed long vowels and diphthongs show front-back umlaut variation, stressed short vowels might be lengthened depending on the quantity of the following consonants, and single short intervocalic b, g are fricativized. In the west, "preaspirated" clusters ''hp, ht, hk'' are simplified to ''h'' (if following an unstressed vowel), and after a short stressed vowel, geminate consonants or unstressed ''a'' may be lengthened.<br />
<br />
=== Classification ===<br />
:[[Uralic]] <br />
::[[Finnic-Ugric]] <br />
:::[[Saamic]] <br />
::::[[Central Saamic]] <br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Aikio, Ante (1986): Some issues in the study of language shift in the Northern Calotte. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:5, 361-378.<br />
*Bartens, Hans-Hermann (1989): Lehrbuch der saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg: Buske.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1976) Lappische Grammatik mit Lesestücken. Aus dem Norwegischen übersetzt von Werner Dontenwill. Wiesba¬den: Harrassowitz<br />
*Collinder, Bjørn (1949): The Lappish dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsa¬la.<br />
*Frette, Thor (1975): Norsk-saamisk ordbok / Dárugie-sámigiel sádigir’ji. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Gaski, Harald (1991): Våja våja nana nana: saamiske tekster. Oslo : LNU.<br />
*Huss, Leena (1999): Reversing language shift in the Far North: linguistic revitalization in Northern Scandinavia and Fin-land. [Studia Uralica et Altaica Upsaliensia 31]. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988a): The Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 41-57.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988b): The History of the Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 264-287.<br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1929): Sprachlehre des Nordlappischen nach den seelappischen Mundarten. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.<br />
*Kusmenko, Jurij (2008): Der saamische Einfluss auf die skandinavischen Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur skandinavischen Sprachgeschichte. [Berliner Beiträge zur Skandinavistik, 10]. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut der Humboldt-Universität.<br />
*Nielsen, Konrad & Nesheim, Asbjørn (1962): Lappisk ordbok, grunnet på dialektene i Polmak, Karasjok og Kautokeino. 5 Bde. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Saami Linguistics Bibliography. Compiled by Anita Szakay, Michael Rießler, Ida Toivonen, Diane Nelson, Zita McRobbie-Utasi & Nina Widjaja. In: Toivonen, Ida & Nelson, Diane (2007), Saami linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 259-304<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1989): Saami-suoma satnegirji : Saamelais-suomalainen sanakirja. Ohcejohka: Jorgaleaddji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998a): The Saami Languages: An introduction. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998b): Saamic. In: Abondolo, Daniel (ed., 1998): The Uralic languages. London: Routledge, 43-95.<br />
*Svonni, Mikael (1990): Sámi-ruota, ruota-sámi sátnegirji / Saamisk-svensk, svensk-saamisk ordbok. Jokkmokk: Sámi Girjjit.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
*Deutsch [[Nord-Saami]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:LANG]]<br />
[[Category:Single language]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=North_Saami&diff=11564North Saami2011-06-23T10:57:39Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{InfoboxLanguage|<br />
Language=North Saami<br />
|Autonym=Davvisámegiella<br />
|WALSname=Saami, Northern<br />
|Ethn15name=Saami, North<br />
|Countries=[[Sweden, Norway ]]<br />
|WALSLoc=<br />
|Speakers= 15000 (Norway); 25000 (all Countries)<br />
|Family= [[Uralic]]<br />
|Genus=[[Saamic]]<br />
*[[Central Saamic]]<br />
|OfficialLg=<br />
|ISO1=-<br />
|ISO2B=sme<br />
|ISO2T=<br />
|Ethn15=sme<br />
|MPIExt1=<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Name ===<br />
<br />
<br />
Alternative names:<br />
*Northern Lapp<br />
*Norwegian Lapp<br />
<br />
=== Location ===<br />
<br />
Sweden, Norway, Finland.<br />
<br />
Standard language 1948, reformed 1973. Recognized minority language in the municipalities of Kautokeino, Karasjok, Kåfjord, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana (N), Gällivare, Jokkmokk, Kiruna (S), and Enontekiö, Inari, Sodankylä, Utsjoki (SF).<br />
<br />
=== Speakers ===<br />
<br />
15000 in Norway, 4000 in Sweden, and 2000 in Finland according to Ethnologue.<br />
<br />
=== Dialects ===<br />
<br />
North Saami is divided in three main groups: Torne Saami (in the south), Finnmark Saami, and Sea Saami (on the coast).<br />
<br />
Torne Saami shares some features with [[Lule Saam]] and may therefore be considered transitional to the western group of Central Saami. It is subdivided into four dialects.<br />
<br />
Sea Saami shows some remarkable achaisms that agree with [[Eastern Saami]], especially the retention of geminated nasals. Its western dialect shares some features with western Finnmark Saami, while its central and eastern dialect rather agree with eastern Finnmark Saami, and the eastern dialect shares some features with Inari Saami.<br />
<br />
Finnmark Saami (spoken by the majority of North Saami speakers) may be divided into western and eastern dialects. In the east stressed long vowels and diphthongs show front-back umlaut variation, stressed short vowels might be lengthened depending on the quantity of the following consonants, and single short intervocalic b, g are fricativized. In the west, "preaspirated" clusters ''hp, ht, hk'' are simplified to ''h'' (if following an unstressed vowel), and after a short stressed vowel, geminate consonants or unstressed ''a'' may be lengthened.<br />
<br />
=== Classification ===<br />
:[[Uralic]] <br />
::[[Finnic-Ugric]] <br />
:::[[Saamic]] <br />
::::[[Central Saamic]] <br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Aikio, Ante (1986): Some issues in the study of language shift in the Northern Calotte. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:5, 361-378.<br />
*Bartens, Hans-Hermann (1989): Lehrbuch der saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg: Buske.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1976) Lappische Grammatik mit Lesestücken. Aus dem Norwegischen übersetzt von Werner Dontenwill. Wiesba¬den: Harrassowitz<br />
*Collinder, Bjørn (1949): The Lappish dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsa¬la.<br />
*Frette, Thor (1975): Norsk-saamisk ordbok / Dárugie-sámigiel sádigir’ji. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Gaski, Harald (1991): Våja våja nana nana: saamiske tekster. Oslo : LNU.<br />
*Huss, Leena (1999): Reversing language shift in the Far North: linguistic revitalization in Northern Scandinavia and Fin-land. [Studia Uralica et Altaica Upsaliensia 31]. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988a): The Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 41-57.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988b): The History of the Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 264-287.<br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1929): Sprachlehre des Nordlappischen nach den seelappischen Mundarten. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.<br />
*Kusmenko, Jurij (2008): Der saamische Einfluss auf die skandinavischen Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur skandinavischen Sprachgeschichte. [Berliner Beiträge zur Skandinavistik, 10]. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut der Humboldt-Universität.<br />
*Nielsen, Konrad & Nesheim, Asbjørn (1962): Lappisk ordbok, grunnet på dialektene i Polmak, Karasjok og Kautokeino. 5 Bde. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Saami Linguistics Bibliography. Compiled by Anita Szakay, Michael Rießler, Ida Toivonen, Diane Nelson, Zita McRobbie-Utasi & Nina Widjaja. In: Toivonen, Ida & Nelson, Diane (2007), Saami linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 259-304<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1989): Saami-suoma satnegirji : Saamelais-suomalainen sanakirja. Ohcejohka: Jorgaleaddji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998a): The Saami Languages: An introduction. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998b): Saamic. In: Abondolo, Daniel (ed., 1998): The Uralic languages. London: Routledge, 43-95.<br />
*Svonni, Mikael (1990): Sámi-ruota, ruota-sámi sátnegirji / Saamisk-svensk, svensk-saamisk ordbok. Jokkmokk: Sámi Girjjit.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
*Deutsch [[Nord-Saami]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:LANG]]<br />
[[Category:Single language]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=North_Saami&diff=11563North Saami2011-06-23T10:56:44Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{InfoboxLanguage|<br />
Language=North Saami<br />
|Autonym=Davvisámegiella<br />
|WALSname=Saami, Northern<br />
|Ethn15name=Saami, North<br />
|Countries=[[Sweden, Norway ]]<br />
|WALSLoc=<br />
|Speakers= 15000 (Norway); 25000 (all Countries)<br />
|Family= [[Uralic]]<br />
|Genus=[[Saamic]]<br />
*[[Central Saamic]]<br />
|OfficialLg=<br />
|ISO1=-<br />
|ISO2B=sme<br />
|ISO2T=<br />
|Ethn15=sme<br />
|MPIExt1=<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Name ===<br />
<br />
<br />
Alternative names:<br />
*Northern Lapp<br />
*Norwegian Lapp<br />
<br />
=== Location ===<br />
<br />
Sweden, Norway, Finland.<br />
<br />
Standard language 1948, reformed 1973. Recognized minority language in the municipalities of Kautokeino, Karasjok, Kåfjord, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana (N), Gällivare, Jokkmokk, Kiruna (S), and Enontekiö, Inari, Sodankylä, Utsjoki (SF).<br />
<br />
=== Speakers ===<br />
<br />
15000 in Norway, 4000 in Sweden, and 2000 in Finland according to Ethnologue.<br />
<br />
=== Dialects ===<br />
<br />
North Saami is divided in three main groups: Torne Saami (in the south), Finnmark Saami, and Sea Saami (on the coast).<br />
<br />
Torne Saami shares some features with [[Lule Saam]] and may therefore be considered transitional to the western group of Central Saami. It is subdivided into four dialects.<br />
<br />
Sea Saami shows some remarkable achaisms that agree with [[Eastern Saami]], especially the retention of geminated nasals. Its western dialect shares some features with western Finnmark Saami, while its central and eastern dialect rather agree with eastern Finnmark Saami, and the eastern dialect shares some features with Inari Saami.<br />
<br />
Finnmark Saami (spoken by the majority of North Saami speakers) may be divided into western and eastern dialects. In the east stressed long vowels and diphthongs show front-back umlaut variation, stressed short vowels might be lengthened depending on the quantity of the following consonants, and single short intervocalic b, g are fricativized. In the west, "preaspirated" clusters ''hp, ht, hk'' are simplified to ''h'', and after a short stressed vowel, geminate consonants or unstressed ''a'' may be lengthened.<br />
<br />
=== Classification ===<br />
:[[Uralic]] <br />
::[[Finnic-Ugric]] <br />
:::[[Saamic]] <br />
::::[[Central Saamic]] <br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Aikio, Ante (1986): Some issues in the study of language shift in the Northern Calotte. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:5, 361-378.<br />
*Bartens, Hans-Hermann (1989): Lehrbuch der saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg: Buske.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1976) Lappische Grammatik mit Lesestücken. Aus dem Norwegischen übersetzt von Werner Dontenwill. Wiesba¬den: Harrassowitz<br />
*Collinder, Bjørn (1949): The Lappish dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet i Uppsa¬la.<br />
*Frette, Thor (1975): Norsk-saamisk ordbok / Dárugie-sámigiel sádigir’ji. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Gaski, Harald (1991): Våja våja nana nana: saamiske tekster. Oslo : LNU.<br />
*Huss, Leena (1999): Reversing language shift in the Far North: linguistic revitalization in Northern Scandinavia and Fin-land. [Studia Uralica et Altaica Upsaliensia 31]. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988a): The Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 41-57.<br />
*Korhonen, Mikko (1988b): The History of the Lapp Language. In: Sinor, Denis (ed., 1988): The Uralic Languages. Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill, 264-287.<br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1929): Sprachlehre des Nordlappischen nach den seelappischen Mundarten. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.<br />
*Kusmenko, Jurij (2008): Der saamische Einfluss auf die skandinavischen Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur skandinavischen Sprachgeschichte. [Berliner Beiträge zur Skandinavistik, 10]. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut der Humboldt-Universität.<br />
*Nielsen, Konrad & Nesheim, Asbjørn (1962): Lappisk ordbok, grunnet på dialektene i Polmak, Karasjok og Kautokeino. 5 Bde. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.<br />
*Saami Linguistics Bibliography. Compiled by Anita Szakay, Michael Rießler, Ida Toivonen, Diane Nelson, Zita McRobbie-Utasi & Nina Widjaja. In: Toivonen, Ida & Nelson, Diane (2007), Saami linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 259-304<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1989): Saami-suoma satnegirji : Saamelais-suomalainen sanakirja. Ohcejohka: Jorgaleaddji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998a): The Saami Languages: An introduction. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998b): Saamic. In: Abondolo, Daniel (ed., 1998): The Uralic languages. London: Routledge, 43-95.<br />
*Svonni, Mikael (1990): Sámi-ruota, ruota-sámi sátnegirji / Saamisk-svensk, svensk-saamisk ordbok. Jokkmokk: Sámi Girjjit.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
*Deutsch [[Nord-Saami]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:LANG]]<br />
[[Category:Single language]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Saamic&diff=11562Saamic2011-06-23T10:54:55Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Saamic languages are considered to belong to the Finnic branch of the [[Uralic]] languages, though some authors rather assume an independent subfamily of Western Uralic. They are spoken in northern Europe and may be subdivided in [[Eastern Saamic]], [[Central Saamic]], and [[Southern Saamic]]. The last two groups are often unified as [[Western Saamic]].</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=South_Saami&diff=11561South Saami2011-06-23T10:53:47Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialects */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{InfoboxLanguage|<br />
Language=South Saami<br />
|Autonym=Saemie<br />
|WALSname=[http://blog.wals.info/datapoint-1-wals_code_scs Saami (Central-South)]<br />
|Ethn15name=Saami, South<br />
|Countries=[[Sweden, Norway ]]<br />
|WALSLoc= 64° 40′ N, 16° 45′ E<br />
|Speakers= 600 <br />
|Family= [[Uralic]]<br />
|Genus=[[Saamic]]<br />
*[[Southern Saamic]]<br />
|OfficialLg= -<br />
|ISO1=-<br />
|ISO2B=sma<br />
|ISO2T=<br />
|Ethn15=sma<br />
|MPIExt1=<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=== Name ===<br />
<br />
Alternative names:<br />
*Southern Lapp<br />
<br />
=== Location ===<br />
<br />
Sweden, Norway.<br />
<br />
Standard language 1978. Recognized minority language in Snåsa (Norway).<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Speakers ===<br />
<br />
About 300 in each country according to Ethnologue.<br />
<br />
=== Dialects ===<br />
<br />
Northern and Southern. Main Differences:<br />
*N -b, bt = S -m, mt<br />
*N -uo- = S -aa- (former *ō)<br />
*N -dh = S -jh (infinitive marker)<br />
*N r = S d (former *ð)<br />
*N e/ä = S a (umlaut of a/i)<br />
<br />
=== Classification ===<br />
:[[Uralic]] <br />
::[[Finnic-Ugric]] <br />
:::[[Finnic-Permic]] <br />
::::[[Finnic-Saamic]] <br />
:::::[[Saamic]] <br />
::::::[[Southern Saamic]] <br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1943): Røros-samiske tekster. Oslo: A. W. Brøggers Boktrykkeri.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1946): Røros-lappisk grammatikk. Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforsk¬ning.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1983): Southern Lapp and Scandinavian quantity patterns. In: Symposium saeculare Societatis Fenno-Ugricae. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura, 73-87. <br />
*Bergsland, Knut (1994): Sydsamisk grammatikk. Karasjok: Davvi Girji.<br />
*Bergsland, Knut & Mattsson Magga, Lajla (1993): Åerjelsaemien-daaroen baakoegærja / Sydsamisk-norsk ordbok. Indre Billefjord: Iđut.<br />
*Collinder, Björn (1942): Lappische Sprachproben aus Härjedalen: mit einem Abriss der Nominal und Verbalbeugung. Nach Nils Axman ... aufgezeichnet von B. C. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.<br />
*Hasselbrink, Gustav (1944): Vilhelminalapskans ljudlära, med särskild hänsyn till första stavelsens vokaler. Dissertation Uppsala.<br />
*Hasselbrink, Gustav (1981, 1983, 1985): Oårj'elsaamien baaguog'ärjaa. Bd. 1 Gieleleäruo. Baaguog'ärjaa: Å - Flytt'ehd. Bd. 2 Baaguog'ärjaa: Fnuske - nuöggietidh. Bd. 3 Baaguog'ärjaa: Nuögie - yvd'e. Bilder. Uppsala: Lundequist.<br />
*Israelsson, Per-Martin & Nejne, Sakka (2008): Svensk-sydsamisk, sydsamisk-svensk: ordbok och ortnamn / Daaroen-åarjelsaemien, åarjelsaemien-daaroen: baakoegärja jih sijjienommh. 2. uppl. Kiruna: Sametinget. <br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1923): Sprachlehre des Südlappischen nach der Mundart von Wefsen. Kristiania: Kristiania Etnogra-fiske Museum.<br />
*Lagercrantz, Eliel (1926): Wörterbuch des Südlappischen nach der Mundart von Wefsen. Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning.<br />
*Sammallahti, Pekka (1998). The Saami languages. An Introduction. Kárášjoka: Davvi Girji. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
*Deutsch [[Süd-Saami]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:LANG]]<br />
[[Category:Single language]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=11560Southern Saamic2011-06-23T10:52:01Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Split of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
*The unmarked word order is SOV for main verbs but SVO for auxiliaries.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost altogether, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.<br />
<br />
In [[South Saami]], zero copula is regular in 3rd person present (including periphrastic tenses and possessive constructions).<br />
The predicative possessor is marked by the genitive and not by the locative.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Central_Saamic&diff=11559Central Saamic2011-06-23T10:51:35Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Central Saamic constitutes the northern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. It is further divided into the western group ([[Pite Saami]] and [[Lule Saami]]) and [[North Saami]].<br />
<br />
Central Saamic may be defined by the absence of typical features of the other branches rather than own innovations.<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Southern Saamic]] in the following (western) features:<br />
*Development *š > *jh before k,t,n.<br />
*Development of "prothetic stops" in long nasals (with the exception of Sea Saami dialects of [[North Saami]]).<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Eastern Saamic]] in the following features:<br />
*No split in the development of short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Loss of third syllable final vowels.<br />
*Consonantal gradation is fully developed.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Central_Saamic&diff=11558Central Saamic2011-06-23T10:50:36Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Central Saamic constitutes the northern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. It is further divided into the western group ([[Pite Saami]] and [[Lule Saami]]) and [[North Saami]].<br />
<br />
Central Saamic may be defined by the absence of typical features of the other branches rather than own innovations.<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Southern Saamic]] in the following (western) features:<br />
*Development *š > *jh before k,t,n<br />
*Development of "prothetic stops" in long nasals (with the exception of Sea Saami dialects of [[North Saami]])<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Eastern Saamic]] in the following features:<br />
*No split in the development of short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Loss of third syllable final vowels<br />
*Consonantal gradation is fully developed</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11247PIE root *wert-2011-01-12T08:43:56Z<p>MaJoKü: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn' <ref>For intransitive meaning, cf. the intransitive active root aorist in Vedic as well as the Latin perfect</ref><br />
<br />
IEW 1156-8; LIV² 691f.<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in' <ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned' <ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008): ''Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon''. Leiden / Boston: Brill.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change&diff=11192Sound change2010-11-25T20:00:13Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sound change''' is a kind of [[language change]] concerning the phonological system (including phonetic realisation).<br />
<br />
If a sound change is a general phenomenon, it is called a [[sound law]] or a [[phonetical rule]]. Exceptions to the law or rule can normally be explained by analogy.<br />
<br />
To describe sound changes, a special notation is used:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][+voiced] > [-son][-voiced] /__#</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
= voiced non-sonorant sounds, i.e., voiced obstruents become voiceless at the end of a word (final devoicing).<br />
<br />
===andere Sprachen===<br />
<br />
German [[Lautwandel]]<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Diachrony]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change_typology&diff=11108Sound change typology2010-10-13T11:10:27Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[sound change|Sound changes]] can be classified and grouped together according to the type of change, its conditioning and other factors.<br />
<br />
For a certain type of change, we can observe in which languages it occurred, and collections of attested sound changes then may show how frequent this type of change is. Some changes are very common, as, e.g., intervocalic voicing of voiceless stops:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][-cont][-voiced] > [-son][-cont][+voiced] /[+voc]__[+voc]</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
or (simplified and more concrete)<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>p, t, k > b, d, g /V__V</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
It occurred, e.g., in the history of most Iranian languages, Middle Indo-Aryan, in Western Romance, British Celtic, Old Danish, in many Uralic languages etc.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change&diff=11107Sound change2010-10-13T11:04:46Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sound change''' is a kind of [[language change]] concerning the phonological system (including phonetic realisation).<br />
<br />
If a sound change is a general phenomenon, it is called a [[sound law]] or a [[phonetical rule]]. Exceptions to the law or rule can normally be explained by analogy.<br />
<br />
To describe sound changes, a special notation is used:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][+voiced] > [-son][-voiced] /__#</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
= voiced plosives, fricatives and affricates become voiceless at the end of a word (final devoicing).<br />
<br />
===andere Sprachen===<br />
<br />
German [[Lautwandel]]<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Diachrony]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change_typology&diff=11106Sound change typology2010-10-13T11:00:38Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with 'Sound changes can be classified and grouped together according to the type of change, its conditioning and other factors.'</p>
<hr />
<div>[[sound change|Sound changes]] can be classified and grouped together according to the type of change, its conditioning and other factors.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Sound_change&diff=11105Sound change2010-10-13T10:55:17Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with ''''Sound change''' is a kind of language change concerning the phonological system (including phonetic realisation). If a sound change is a general phenomenon, it is called ...'</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sound change''' is a kind of [[language change]] concerning the phonological system (including phonetic realisation).<br />
<br />
If a sound change is a general phenomenon, it is called a [[sound law]] or a [[phonetical rule]]. Exceptions to the law or rule can normally be explained by analogy.<br />
<br />
To describe sound changes, a special notation is used:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<tt>[-son][+sth] > [-son][-sth] /__#</tt><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
= voiced plosives, fricatives and affricates become voiceless at the end of a word (final devoicing).<br />
<br />
===andere Sprachen===<br />
<br />
German [[Lautwandel]]<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Diachrony]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11104PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:51:23Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn' <ref>For intransitive meaning, cf. the intransitive active root aorist in Vedic as well as the Latin perfect</ref><br />
<br />
IEW 1156-8; LIV² 691f.<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in' <ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned' <ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11103PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:50:42Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn' <ref>For intransitive meaning, cf. the intransitive active root aorist in Vedic as well as the Latin perfect</ref><br />
<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in' <ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned' <ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11102PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:49:02Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn' <ref>For intransitive meaning, cf. the intransitive active root aorist in Vedic as well as the Latin perfect</ref><br />
<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in' <ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned' <ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11101PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:48:49Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<ref>For intransitive meaning, cf. the intransitive active root aorist in Vedic as well as the Latin perfect</ref><br />
<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11100PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:47:23Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Citations and notes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11099PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:47:05Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Aorist1a *wért-/wrt- */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<ref>Active root aorist with middle present, synonymous mediopassive root aorist ''varti, avrtran'' (rebuilt to s-Aorist ''avrtsata'') see Narten 1961: 248-9</ref><br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==<br />
<references /></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11097PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:44:47Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Citations and notes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==<br />
<references /></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11096PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:38:38Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Citations and notes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11095PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:38:22Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Citations and notes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==<br />
<ref>cite_ref-0</ref></div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11094PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:27:42Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Aorist1a *wért-/wrt- */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref>Kloekhorst 2008: 978</ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==<br />
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11093PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:25:52Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<ref></ref><br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'<br />
<br />
== Citations and notes ==<br />
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11092PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:15:40Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Perfect *we-wórt/wrt- */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vāvárta, vavárta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11091PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:14:58Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Reconstructed stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
===Perfect *''we-wórt/wrt-''===<br />
Vedic ''vā̆várta'' 'turns, has turned'<br />
<br />
Old Latin ''uortī'' 'turned'<br />
<br />
===Causative *''wort-éjo/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vartáyati'' 'turns (tr.)'<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11090PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:12:20Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Innovations */</p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
...<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek ''ἀπό-ερσε'' 'tore away'<br />
<br />
====Present4====<br />
OCS ''ob-vrъnǫti sę'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
Tocharian B ''wärnāmane'' 'turning'</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11089PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:10:28Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Meaning: 'to turn'<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
==Reconstructed stems==<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
...<br />
==Innovations==<br />
====Aorist2====<br />
Greek apó-erse 'tore away'</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11087PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:06:02Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>==*wert- 'to turn'==<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
...</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11086PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:05:43Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>=*wert- 'to turn'=<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
...</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Talk:PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11085Talk:PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:05:04Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with 'Liebe Kollegen, bitte lasst diesen Artikel stehen - er ist sicherlich zu speziell für Glottopedia, ich möchte ihn aber für experimentelle Zwecke vorläufig stehen lassen.'</p>
<hr />
<div>Liebe Kollegen, bitte lasst diesen Artikel stehen - er ist sicherlich zu speziell für Glottopedia, ich möchte ihn aber für experimentelle Zwecke vorläufig stehen lassen.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=PIE_root_*wert-&diff=11084PIE root *wert-2010-10-12T13:03:43Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with '=PIE *wert- 'to turn'= IEW 1156-8 ===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''=== Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in' Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned' ===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''=== Vedic ''várta...'</p>
<hr />
<div>=PIE *wert- 'to turn'=<br />
IEW 1156-8<br />
===Aorist1a *''wért-/wrt-''===<br />
Hittite ''anda wartanzi'' 'turn in'<br />
<br />
Vedic ''avart'' 'has turned'<br />
===Present5a *''wért-o/e-''===<br />
Vedic ''vártate'' 'turns'<br />
<br />
Latin ''uertor, uertī'' 'to turn'<br />
<br />
...</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Indo-European&diff=11083Indo-European2010-10-12T12:50:41Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with '=Indo-European languages= Indo-European is today the most widespread language family in the world, mostly due to European colonialism. Originally, this language family was spoke...'</p>
<hr />
<div>=Indo-European languages=<br />
<br />
Indo-European is today the most widespread language family in the world, mostly due to European colonialism. Originally, this language family was spoken from Northern and Western Europe to Northern India.<br />
The existence of the family was postulated when European scholars learned to know Indian languages, especially [[Sanskrit]], the ancient holy language of India, and the work of the Sanskrit Grammarians. The study of Indo-European languages was the starting-point for modern historical linguistics.<br />
By comparison of the various Indo-European languages and their oldest attestations, a common ancestor can be reconstructed (if only partially) which is usually called [[Proto-Indo-European]].</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Uralic&diff=11082Uralic2010-10-12T12:37:32Z<p>MaJoKü: Created page with '=Uralic languages= Uralic languages are found in Northern Europe and Northern Asia, neighbouring Indo-European in the West and South and Tungusic and Turkic in the East. The...'</p>
<hr />
<div>=Uralic languages=<br />
<br />
Uralic languages are found in Northern Europe and Northern Asia, neighbouring [[Indo-European]] in the West and South and Tungusic and Turkic in the East.<br />
The family is usually considered to have two main branches:<br />
Samoyedic (in the Northeast) and Finnic-Ugric.<br />
The Finnic-Ugric branch was one of the first language families to be postulated in the history of Linguistics.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=User:MaJoK%C3%BC&diff=11081User:MaJoKü2010-10-12T12:27:56Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Link===<br />
[http://www.indogermanistik.uni-freiburg.de/seminar/pers/kuemmel Homepage]<br />
<br />
[[Category:LINGUIST|Kümmel, Martin]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Habitual_aspect&diff=10767Habitual aspect2010-06-05T21:32:12Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Habituals */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''habitual aspect''' is an [[aspect]] that characterizes a [[situation]] as occurring regularly or habitually. Habituality is either linguistically represented by verbal expressions like ''used to'' or it is indirectly implied in situations “in which the adverb ''usually'' is possible in English” (Dahl 1985: 97). Some languages have tenses that are specialized to the expression of habitual aspect.<br />
<br />
==Comments==<br />
<br />
The habitual aspect is a subcategory of the [[imperfective aspect]]. It must be distinguished from the [[iterative aspect]]. While '''habituals''' "describe a situation which is characteristic of an ''extended'' period of time" (Comrie 1985: 27), '''iteratives''' consist of "repeated occurrences of the ''same situation''" (Declerck 1991: 277); e.g. giving a sequence of coughs should be understood as a single iterative situation rather than a characteristic or habitual feature of the person who is coughing.<br />
<br />
Habitual sentences can basically be categorized into three subtypes across languages: habituals, habitual-generic sentences and the habitual past. (Dahl 1985: 95-102)<br />
<br />
==Subtypes and Examples==<br />
<br />
===Habituals===<br />
<br />
'''Habituals''' describe individual persons’ habits. Two types of habituals can be distinguished:<br />
<br />
Some Languages have imperfective forms which can unambiguously be interpreted as '''exclusively habitual'''.<br />
<br />
* North Welsh: ''Darllenwn i “Y Farner.”'' (I used to read “The Banner”.)<br />
* Lithuanian: ''Atsikeldavau anksti.'' (I used to get up early.)<br />
<br />
The majority of languages has imperfective forms which can be interpreted as either '''habitual''' or '''progressive/conative/iterative'''. Sentences in these languages are defined as habituals if adverbs such as ''habitually'' or ''usually'' are implied in the context. Habituality constitutes just one possible reading in this case (Comrie 1985: 25).<br />
<br />
* English: ''After dinner Mr. and Mrs. Cooper go for a walk.''<br />
* German: ''Vor dem Schlafengehen lese ich ein Buch.'' (Before going to bed I read a book.)<br />
* Ancient Greek: ''Ὁ γεωργός πωλεί το σιτίον.'' (The farmer sells his corn.)<br />
<br />
===Habitual-generics===<br />
<br />
'''Habitual-generic''' sentences describe the “typical or characteristic properties of a species, a kind, or an individual” (Dahl 1985: 99). Their “lawlikeness” (Dahl 1985: 97) makes them similar to eternal truths or generalizations.<br />
<br />
* ''When cats are hungry they meow.''<br />
* ''Children like ice cream.''<br />
* ''Competitive athletes pay great attention to a well-balanced supply of essential nutrients.''<br />
<br />
<br />
===Habitual past===<br />
<br />
The '''habitual past''' is found in habitual sentences with past time reference. Specialized habitual past tenses are found in English, Alawa, Oneida and Seneca, among other languages. This type of habituality implies a certain degree of indeterminacy because it does not make reference to the present. It is therefore unclear whether the situation described still holds at the moment of utterance (cf. Comrie 1985: 28).<br />
<br />
* English: ''He used to swim every morning.''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Habituality markers in English==<br />
<br />
* ''used to'': ''My parents used to travel to Rostock at the Baltic Sea every summer.''<br />
* ''would'': ''A friend of my mine would swim in the ocean every day.''<br />
* adverbials like ''usually'', ''always'' etc.: ''We usually play table tennis after dinner.''<br />
* ''like to'': ''I like to go to the matches of my favourite football club.''<br />
* subordinate clauses beginning with (always) when: ''When I’m hungry my husband calls the pizza service.''<br />
* the auxiliary ''do'' (in Early Modern English)<br />
<br />
==Synonyms==<br />
<br />
* [[habitualis]]<br />
* [[usitative]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
* Binnick, Robert I. 1991. ''Time and the Verb: A Guide to Tense and Aspect.'' Oxford: University Press. 155. ISBN 0-19-506206-X<br />
* Binnick, Robert I. 2005. The Markers of Habitual Aspect in English. ''Journal of English Linguistics'' 33(4). 339-369. [http://eng.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/33/4/339 Full Text]<br />
* '''Comrie, Bernard. 1985. ''Aspect: An Introduction to Verbal Aspect and Related Problems.'' ''' Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. 26-32. ISBN 0-521-21109-3 [http://books.google.de/books?id=Z4FM00GAwlUC&printsec=frontcover&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_navlinks_s Google Book Search]<br />
* Crystal, David. 1987. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. 422. ISBN 0-521-26438-3<br />
* '''Dahl, Östen. 1985. ''Tense and Aspect Systems.'' ''' New York: Basil Blackwell. 95-102. ISBN 0-631-14114-6 [http://www.ling.su.se/staff/oesten/recycled/Tense&aspectsystems.pdf Full text]<br />
* '''Declerck, Renaat. 1991. ''Tense in English: Its Structure and Use in Discourse.'' ''' London: Routledge. 277-284. ISBN 0-415-06151-2 [http://books.google.de/books?id=BaUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Google Book Search]<br />
* Hartmann, Reinhard Rudolf Karl, and Stork, Francis Colin. 1972. ''Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.'' London: Applied Science. 21. ISBN 0-853-34534-1<br />
* Hewson, John, and Bubenick, Vit. 1997. ''Tense ans Aspect in Indo-European Languages: Theory, Typology, Diachrony.'' Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 342-343. ISBN 1-556-19860-4<br />
<br />
==Other languages==<br />
German [[Habitualis (de)]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Semantics]]<br />
[[Category:Aspect]]</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Central_Saamic&diff=10706Central Saamic2010-04-24T21:02:57Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Central Saamic constitutes the northern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. It is further divided into the western group ([[Pite Saami]] and [[Lule Saami]]) and [[North Saami]].<br />
<br />
Central Saamic may rather be defined by the absence of typical features of the other branches rather than own innovations.<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Southern Saamic]] in the following (western) features:<br />
*Development *š > *jh before k,t,n<br />
*Development of "prothetic stops" in long nasals (with the exception of Sea Saami dialects of [[North Saami]])<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Eastern Saamic]] in the following features:<br />
*No split in the development of short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Loss of third syllable final vowels<br />
*Consonantal gradation is fully developed</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=10705Southern Saamic2010-04-24T21:01:09Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialectal differences */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
*The unmarked word order is SOV for main verbs but SVO for auxiliaries.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost altogether, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.<br />
<br />
In [[South Saami]], zero copula is regular in 3rd person present (including periphrastic tenses and possessive constructions).<br />
The predicative possessor is marked by the genitive and not by the locative.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=10457Southern Saamic2009-12-06T10:12:52Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Dialectal differences */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
*The unmarked word order is SOV for main verbs but SVO for auxiliaries.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost altogether, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.<br />
<br />
In [[South Saami]], zero copula is regular in 3rd person present (includive periphrastic tenses and possessive constructions).<br />
The predicative possessor is marked by the genitive and not by the locative.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=10456Southern Saamic2009-12-06T10:12:06Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
*The unmarked word order is SOV for main verbs but SVO for auxiliaries.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost altogether, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.<br />
<br />
In [[South Saami]], zero copula is regular in 3rd person present.<br />
The predicative possessor is marked by the genitive and not by the locative.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=10455Southern Saamic2009-12-06T10:09:59Z<p>MaJoKü: /* Characteristic features */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost altogether, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=9210Southern Saamic2009-03-19T17:31:15Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
== Characteristic features ==<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Dialectal differences ===<br />
In [[South Saami]], consonantal gradation is lost, and unaccented vowels are reduced in the second syllable of trisyllabic words. In [[Ume Saami]], both are preserved.<br />
<br />
In [[Ume Saami]], contracted non-low vowels are raised in certain verb forms. In the illative singular, ''-je'' has analogically spread to all stem classes.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Southern_Saamic&diff=9209Southern Saamic2009-03-19T17:12:50Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Southern Saamic languages constitute the southern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. Two languages are distinguished: [[Ume Saami]] in the north, and [[South Saami]] in the south.<br />
<br />
Typical features of Southern Saamic include:<br />
*Preservation of word-final vowels in the third syllable.<br />
*Splitting of original short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Gemination of consonants after short stressed vowels, leading to the effect that consonantal gradation is reduced in Ume Saami and totally absent from South Saami.<br />
*Heavy umlaut in the stressed syllable that was strongly phonologized by neutralization of unstressed short vowels.</div>MaJoKühttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Central_Saamic&diff=9208Central Saamic2009-03-19T17:12:22Z<p>MaJoKü: </p>
<hr />
<div>Central Saamic constitutes the northern branch of [[Western Saamic|Western]] [[Saamic]]. It is further divided into the western group ([[Pite Saami]] and [[Lule Saami]]) and [[North Saami]].<br />
<br />
Central Saamic may rather be defined by the absence of typical features of the other branches rather than own innovations.<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Southern Saamic]] in the following (western) features:<br />
*Development *š > *jh before k,t,n<br />
*Development of "prothetic stiops" in long nasals (with the exception of Sea Saami dialects of [[North Saami]])<br />
<br />
It agrees with [[Eastern Saamic]] in the following features:<br />
*No split in the development of short stressed vowels according to the original openness or closeness of the syllable.<br />
*Loss of third syllable final vowels<br />
*Consonantal gradation is fully developed</div>MaJoKü